The Greeks: Agamemnon to Alexander the Great Exhibit at Field Museum

The most comprehensive exhibition of Greek art and artifacts ever to tour outside Greece opened at the Field Museum of Chicago on November 25. This highly recommended show will be on view until April 10. From Chicago, it will move to the National Geographic Museum in Washington, D.C. and be on display from May 26 through October 9.

The Greeks were a diverse group of peoples inhabiting mainland Greece and the Greek islands, and, in ancient times, the coast of what is now Turkey. They shared a common language and religion, and many of the same political institutions.

Over the course of the several millennia of their ascendancy, the Greeks passed through a variety of social formations: from early class societies on the basis of the “Neolithic Revolution” in agriculture that began some 10,000 years ago in western Asia to the societies, based to a large degree on slave labor, which provided the material basis for a flowering of Greek culture and politics.

“Classical beauty,” wrote Hegel in his Aesthetics, “with its infinite range of content, material, and form is the gift vouchsafed to the Greek people, and we must honour this people for having produced art in its supreme vitality.”

The Greeks is organized by the Canadian Museum of History and the Hellenic Ministry of Culture and Sports in partnership with National Geographic Society and The Field Museum. The exhibition is co-presented in Chicago by The Field Museum and the National Hellenic Museum. The exhibition is developed by the Hellenic Republic – Ministry of Culture and Sports – Directorate General of Antiquities and Cultural Heritage (Athens, Greece), The Field Museum (Chicago, USA), the Canadian Museum of History (Gatineau, Canada), the National Geographic Museum (Washington, DC, USA) and Pointe-à-Callière, Montréal Archeology and History Complex (Montréal, Canada).

The Field Museum gratefully acknowledges the support of the Chicago Park District on behalf of the people of Chicago.

Check out the full story on World Socialist  and the exhibit on the Field Museum website.

Exploring the Brimstone Fortress in St. Kitts

On a recent cruise to the Virgin Islands,  we visited St. Kitts, and took a tour of the island with Roysten tours. We snorkeled along the breathtaking barrier reef in two different secluded locations, and I had the chance to use my waterproof IPhone case for the first time. By the way, it worked pretty well before I went underwater, but once submerged, the phone didn't work at all. Hmm, perhaps not waterproof after all, or, maybe I misread the box which didn't say anything about taking it 6 ft down to take pictures of a school of tiger barbs. I digress…this is supposed to be about Brimstone Fortress. I'm getting to it.

One of our last stops on our St. Kitts tour was Brimstone Fortress. If you know me at all, you know I love fortifications. From the moment I placed my hand on the coquina walls at the Castillo de San Marcos, and just recently walked the streets of Old San Juan, nestled within its own massive fortification, I was fervently obsessed with the look and structure of these man made marvels. 

Brimstone was nothing short of a wondrous architectural feat. The Brimstone Fortress was constructed between the 1690s and 1790s, and remains of singular importance due to the complete military community that resided there during the 18th century.



I first ventured along the coast, and slowly stepped down into the infantry officer's quarters. This section of the fort was constructed in the late 18th century, around 1791. The famous arches allow for splendid views of the Caribbean.

It was one of my favorite buildings. I got lost, not physically, in the panoramic vistas. This area was reserved for regimental officers, who once resided in the masonry basements, once topped with timber buildings.

Here it was. As I made my way to the steps of Fort George Citadel, I had to take a moment to reflect. The fortress is virtually a man-made out growth of the natural hill. The steps to the top reminded me of the Great Wall of China, however the steps, albeit they were very far apart, and looked seemingly easy to navigate, were quite the contrary. 

I thought, hey, I've been swimming and building muscles, this will be a breeze. Phew, by the time I made it half way up, my heart started beating rapidly, and I had to take a breather. The slope of the steps and the elevation presented quite a challenge, but I pressed on. 

By the time I made it to the top, I had to take five minutes to control my breathing. Funny thing was, well, maybe not too funny, there were people in really great shape climbing this staircase, and they too were huffing and puffing the entire way up, and sharing water at the top. Keep in mind, the citadel is nearly 800 feet high, and one of the earliest surviving examples of a new style of fortification known as the 'polygonal system'. However, I wasn't thinking about the shape, I was thinking, "Man, I'm glad I made it to the top without falling over".

View from the Top of the Citadel: Brimstone Fortress

The walls of the structures are predominantly of stone, laboriously and skillfully fashioned from the hard volcanic rock of which the hill is composed. The mortar to cement the stones was produced on site from the limestone which covers much of the middle and lower slopes. 







By the time I finally caught my breath, I got a glimpse of the mountains, the historical township of Sandy Point, and neighbouring Dutch, English and French islands across the Caribbean Sea. It was spectacular, and mainly because I made it to the top without passing out, and actually got to enjoy it. I was up there nearly 20 minutes before my fiancé appeared. Either he got lost, or he took a breather like I did on the step. Either way, it was well worth the effort.

As educators, historians, archaeologists, and travelers, why is it that we find such joy in touching the oldest of structures? Perhaps we expect to feel the history, or some type of connection to the people that once roamed the grounds of these structures. For me, it really does represent living history. Today, most structures are built, not to last, but for purpose. Just look at the arches. Why was it necessary to create so many? Did the infantry really need that many entrances into the courtyard? Why does the design remind me of Ancient Greece? Ancient Rome?

It seems that all people borrowed from those before them, whether it was the method or mode of construction, or the theory behind the design. Either way, it's rewarding to experience a transfer of knowledge from one century to the next. Thousands of years have passed, and yet these structures all share similar voices. That's one of the things I really love about archaeology, and I love that Brimstone Fortress reminded me of that.

New Archaeology, Anthropology, and Educator Job Board

I'm very excited to share my new job board, which is now part of the Simply Hired network. The Ancient Digger Job board will feature an array of job categories. Just search using the keyword feature for archaeology jobs, or any other particular field of interest to you. You can also utilize "more filters" to narrow down your search to title, company, job type, education, and experience level.

Posting a job on Ancient Digger's Job Board

If you'd like to post a job on the Ancient Digger Job Board, there are several options:

Option 1

Reach the targeted audience of Ancient Digger and Simply Hired. Your ad will be displayed to qualified candidates alongside relevant content, and its reach will include those visitors of Ancient Digger, and the millions of applicants searching for jobs on Simply Hired.

Price: $149
Duration: 30 days

Bulk Pricing: Available

Job Categories: Archaeology, History, Anthropology, Travel, Summer School, Field Work, Education


Option 2

Reach the targeted audience of Ancient Digger. Your ad will still be displayed to qualified candidates alongside relevant content, but its reach will be limited to just Ancient Digger.

Price: $45
Duration: 30 days

Bulk Pricing: Available

Job Categories: Archaeology, History, Anthropology, Travel, Summer School, Field Work, Education

Rum Times Celebrates Four Centuries of Brewing Excellence

This post brought to you by Rums of Puerto Rico . The content and opinions expressed below are that of Ancient Digger.

Picture this! Schools out on May 30^th, and you come aboard a ship gently rocking at the Port of San Juan. It’s Puerto Rico, home to some of the world’s most honored traditions and culture, which is why I’m heading there on June 6^th for my first cruise to the Southern Caribbean. Technically, my husband and I don’t leave until June 7^th, but we thought we’d enjoy a tour of old San Juan. Everything I’d ever known about Puerto Rico was from my father, who traveled there many years before. He often describes his tours of the town, as well as the local distilleries, which have been distilling rum for over four decades, making the island the Rum Capital of the World.

On every cruise voyage I’ve taken over the past two years, rum seems to be the drink of choice, and coveted souvenir for many travelers, including myself. Although many of us enjoy this libation, we tend to know little about its origins. The web series Rum Times, seeks to share the history of this luxury, which has been around for centuries. Did you know that Puerto Rican rum represents 70% of the rum consumed in the Unites States? This means that some of the most widely known and celebrated brands of rum, which I’m sure have always held a prominent place in your social gatherings, include brands like Bacardi, Don Q, Ron del Barrilito, Ron Llave and Palo Viejo.

You’ll be celebrating and chanting “It’s Rum Time” while you enjoy the new easily accessible web series with a cool and satisfying drink, that’s one of the best I’ve ever experienced.  Just imagine you’re celebrating your latest promotion, or your friend’s engagement, with one of your favorite rum drinks.  Why is it that we celebrate those times with cocktails that bring us to the cool sands and rippling waters of the Puerto Rican coast? Well, it’s because that’s how the greatest minds celebrated their successes.  In Rum Times first few episodes, it explains the great inventions of Thomas Alva Edison, Joseph Swan, and Nikola Tesla, detailing such inventions such as the incandescent light bulb and also the camera. Perhaps these inventors celebrated in much the same way as we do, with a class of Puerto Rican rum. After all, “behind every great milestone, there’s a great party”.

If you love rum, but are also interested in it’s origins and it’s place in history, visit www.itsrumtime.com to learn more, and watch the new web series. Share your thoughts on the new series promoting Puerto Rican Rum below. 

Archeologists unearth new information on origins of Maya civilization

The Maya civilization is well-known for its elaborate temples, sophisticated writing system, and mathematical and astronomical developments, yet the civilization's origins remain something of a mystery.

A new University of Arizona study to be published in the journal Science challenges the two prevailing theories on how the ancient civilization began, suggesting its origins are more complex than previously thought.

Anthropologists typically fall into one of two competing camps with regard to the origins of Maya civilization. The first camp believes that it developed almost entirely on its own in the jungles of what is now Guatemala and southern Mexico. The second believes that the Maya civilization developed as the result of direct influences from the older Olmec civilization and its center of La Venta.

It's likely that neither of those theories tells the full story, according to findings by a team of archaeologists led by UA husband-and-wife anthropologists Takeshi Inomata and Daniela Triadan.

"We really focused on the beginning of this civilization and how this remarkable civilization developed," said Inomata, UA professor of anthropology and the study's lead author.

In their excavations at Ceibal, an ancient Maya site in Guatemala, researchers found that Ceibal actually predates the growth of La Venta as a major center by as much as 200 years, suggesting that La Venta could not have been the prevailing influence over early Mayan development.

That does not make the Maya civilization older than the Olmec civilization – since Olmec had another center prior to La Venta – nor does it prove that the Maya civilization developed entirely independently, researchers say.

What it does indicate, they say, is that both Ceibal and La Venta probably participated in a broader cultural shift taking place in the period between 1,150-800 B.C.

"We're saying that the scenario of early Maya culture is really more complex than we thought," said UA anthropology graduate student Victor Castillo, who co-authored the paper with Inomata and Triadan.

"We have this idea of the origin of Maya civilization as an indigenous development, and we have this other idea that it was an external influence that triggered the social complexity of Maya civilization. We're now thinking it's not actually black and white," Castillo said.

There is no denying the striking similarities between Ceibal and La Venta, such as evidence of similar ritual practices and the presence of similar architecture – namely the pyramids that would come to be the hallmark of Mesoamerican civilization but did not exist at the earlier Olmec center of San Lorenzo.

However, researchers don't think this is the case of simply one site mimicking the other. Rather, they suspect that both the Maya site of Ceibal and the Olmec site of La Venta were parts of a more geographically far-reaching cultural shift that occurred around 1,000 B.C., about the time when the Olmec center was transitioning from San Lorenzo to La Venta.

"Basically, there was a major social change happening from the southern Maya lowlands to possibly the coast of Chiapas and the southern Gulf Coast, and this site of Ceibal was a part of that broader social change," Inomata said. "The emergence of a new form of society – with new architecture, with new rituals – became really the important basis for all later Mesoamerican civilizations."

The Science paper, titled "Early Ceremonial Constructions at Ceibal, Guatemala, and the Origins of Lowland Maya Civilization," is based on seven years of excavations at Ceibal.

Additional authors of the paper include Japanese researchers Kazuo Aoyama of the University of Ibaraki, Mito and Hitoshi Yonenobu of the Naruto University of Education, Tokushima.

"We were looking at the emergence of specific cultural traits that were shared by many of those Mesoamerican centers, particularly the form of rituals and the construction of the pyramids," Inomata said. "This gives us a new idea about the beginning of Maya civilization, and it also tells us about how common traits shared by many different Mesoamerican civilizations emerged during that time."

Source: UA News

Truth of Words: A Historical Museum Exhibit

Last year I created a museum exhibit based on a letter written by Moses Seixas and the answer that one congregation received after George Washington visited Newport in August 1790, three months after Rhode Island joined the United States.

Although it's not archaeology, it is history and heritage, and here at Ancient Digger I like to share both.

If you have questions after you take a look, please feel free to leave comments below.

Truth of Words: How One Congregation Spoke and Every Listened

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Credits

1. Chernos Lin, Rachel. "The Rhode Island Slave-Traders: Butchers, Bakers and Candlestick-Makers." Slavery & Abolition: A Journal of Slave and Post-Slave Studies. 23.3 (2002): 21-38. Print. 
2. Diner, Hasia R. The Jews of the United States. London: University of California Press,2004.
3. Haas, William P. "Touro Synagogue." Community Scholar Publications. Paper 7 (2010):1-7. Web. 13 Apr. 2012. 
4. Haynes, Charles C. Religion in American History: What to Teach and How. Alexandria: Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development, 1990. eBook. 
5. "History of Touro Synagogue." Touro Synagogue. Congregation Jeshuat Israel, TouroSynagogue Foundation, and George Washington Institute for Religious Freedom, n.d.Web. 17 Mar 2012. 
6. Main Street, Westerly, Rhode Island, 1900s. N.d. Photograph. Family Old Photos, Westerly.Schor, Esther H . Emma Lazarus . 1st ed. New York: Random House, Inc, 2006. 5. Print.
7. Seixas, Moses. “Address to the President from the Hebrew Congregation.” The Papers ofGeorge Washington. University of Virginia, 18 August 1790. Web
8. Sephardi Jews. 2009. Photograph. Wikipedia.
9. Tombstone of Moses Seixas at Newport, R. l.. N.d. Photograph. Jewish Encyclopedia.
10. Washington, George. "GW's Reply to the Hebrew Congregation." The Papers of George Washington. University of Virginia, 18 August 1790. Web. 16 Mar 2012.

Crazy Archaeology Hoaxes or Truth?

I remember a few months back when I was writing my post 30 Reasons Why You Should Become An Archaeologist, one of my list contributors mentioned this quote:

You’ve been watching the History Channel since you were a kid and you scream at the TV when they perpetuate pseudohistory.

How many of you still watch the television questioning every historical reference when it's completely out of context and nonfactual?  Well,  it seems that this top ten list illustrating the world's largest archaeological hoaxes is stirring up some conversation.

Personally, I remember learning about Piltdown Man in classes and I saw the FeeJee Mermaid in person in St Augustine. I even remember when they finally put the dating controversy to rest about the Shroud of Turin. So we think!

A 13th/14th century piece of cloth does not a Jesus cloth make!

For some it's about glory and fame, but to others, it's about sharing history with the world.  I like conspiracy theories as much as the next person, but I also like evidence. Archaeological evidence that is. I like truth and I like support. I want to know why something is thought to date to 3 billion years ago and I want an explanation.  It's hard to explain to people that the Grand Canyon was not created in less that 6000 years. Not surprisingly, it seems these are the people that are arguing their case for the Shroud of Turin Hoax.



Unfortunately, these hoaxes only show us how gullible many people can be, but even more disconcerting is the fact that experts looked at this findings and deemed them authentic. Granted, some of these discoveries were made at a time when there was no advanced dating, and funding of the digs was under the control of people with questionable motives. Either way, it's an entertaining list.

Have a Happy Wednesday!

Medieval artefacts Discovered at Crannog

Pieces of a medieval board game and 1,000-year-old combs are among rare artefacts uncovered during an archaeological dig that is set to rewrite the history books.

Experts have hailed the finds in Co Fermanagh as internationally significant, claiming they shed new light on life in medieval Ireland and its connection with the wider world.

Iron, bronze and bone ornaments have been discovered at the crannog just outside Enniskillen, along with the chess-like pieces believed to have been part of the game. Parts of log boats, leather shoes, knives, decorated dress pins, wooden vessels and a bowl with a cross carved on its base were also unearthed during the six-month dig.

The style and design of the antler and bone combs suggest influences from northern Europe and indicate that the Fermanagh settlement had international links 1,000 years ago.

The Drumclay Crannog, which is an artificial island built in a lake, is the first of its type to be excavated in the north of Ireland since 1870. Archaeologists believe people may have lived there from 600 AD to 1600 AD, and it was probably the home of a noble family, with perhaps four or five houses inhabited at any time. Parents, grandparents, children and servants would all have stayed on the crannog.

The artefacts uncovered so far date back to 900 AD but there are still a number of layers of settlement yet to be excavated.

Stormont Environment Minister Alex Attwood visited the site on Thursday and announced plans for an open day this Saturday to allow the public to tour the crannog and talk to the archaeologists.

"On my two visits to date, I have found the site, the dig, and the archaeology beyond my imagination, enormously exciting and changing my view of our history and Irish life," he said.

"This is the first substantial scientific excavation of a crannog in Northern Ireland. What has been found has the potential not only to be internationally important but ultimately to lead to a reassessment of life in Ulster in early Christian and medieval times."

Source: Herald Ireland

Dr Wendy van Duivenvoorde Interview about Postal Stones

Ancient maritime inscriptions dating back to the early 1600s have been found on the coast of Madagascar by Flinders University researchers.



Dr Wendy van Duivenvoorde, a lecturer in maritime archaeology, returned from the world's fourth largest island last month with evidence of more than 40 inscriptions from Dutch sailing ships that once traversed the region en-route to South East Asia. The team of researchers, including Flinders archaeology research associate Mark Polzer and Jane Fyfe, a PhD candidate and rock art specialist from the University of Western Australia, discovered the messages carved into rock outcrops and boulders on an island in the Bay of Antongil, on the northeast corner of Madagascar.

While some of the inscriptions were originally found in the 1920s, researchers have always believed there were no more than a dozen "postal stones". Dr van Duivenvoorde said the inscriptions, which were carved into the rocks between 1601 and 1657, offered important insights into early Dutch seafaring to the Indies, and were a unique example of Dutch cultural heritage overseas.

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The Sickness of Eros

The sickness of eros is often described in the context of the seasons. The idea of polar opposites, hot and cold, moist and dry, allow for a blend in temperance and harmony, they bring to men, animals, and plants health and plenty, and do them no harm; whereas the wanton love, getting the upper hand and affecting the seasons of the year, is very destructive and injurious, being the source of pestilence, and bringing many other kinds of diseases on animals and plants; for hoar-frost and hail and blight spring from the excesses and disorders of these elements of love, which to know in relation to the revolutions of the heavenly bodies and the seasons of the year is termed astronomy. However, the sickness of eros can also be observed in many forms and in many sources of literature. We see this illness of love in Euripides’ Medea, Chloe and Daphnis, and also in the tyrannical rule of governors as well as their ill rebutted affairs and love of youths, described by Socrates as “a disease of the soul” in the Symposium by Plato.

Lingus' tale of Chloe and Daphnis is an attempt to portray a woman in her most un-desirous form. As a creature of lust and prone to the pathetic notions of admiring someone from a far she might not deserve. However, the ultimate theme or resolution to this romantic obstacle course is marriage, and the consummation of that union. The entire plot is wreaked with longing and love sickness, as Chloe admires and lusts for Daphnis. Yet, she is in the beginning of womanhood and she is not well versed in the sexual exploits of men. As the story unfolds, Daphnis sleeps with older women and gains worldly experience as opposed to Chloe who has the opportunity to experiment, but doesn’t. She must remain virginal until her wedding night, which is the stereotypical idea of women and the same for men. The intrigue and unbearable nature of the story explains the notion of eros. You will succumb to diseases of love if you don’t satisfy it, and in Chloe and Daphnis’s case, love is death unless consummated.

We also see the concept of eros as a sickness in Medea. If eros had not inspired Medea to fall in love with Jason, and be cast aside, her lust would have never drove her to act in such a violent way. She murdered her brother and essentially hacked him up into little pieces like a serial murderer; killed her children with Jason; murdered Jason’s new wife with a crown and robe laced with poison, which burned the skin off her body. After which, her father King Creon died holding her lifeless body. She later tried to trick her husband into poisoning his son Theseus. The idea here is that not only is eros destructive, but for some like Medea, it is a love illness. She never acts with moderation and never just accepts the fact the love can be fleeting. Her approach to her husband was not much different than a young girl with an innocent crush on an older man. They are often delirious with hope or resentment, and see no woman as a match to herself.

Plato’s Symposium is a drinking party held essentially to explain love using a sequence of speeches. The party is for Agathon to celebrate his prize for his first tragedy at the Lenaia in 416 B.C.. Each man must deliver an encomium (praise of a person or thing), a speech in praise of Eros. Love is the supreme god and only the young can enjoy it. Socrates in his speech asserts that the highest purpose of love is to become a philosopher, or literally, a lover of wisdom. However he also speaks of the sickness of eros, which is hidden behind the lines of the speeches and conversation. Socrates experiences difficulty in explaining what the sickness of tyrannical eros is. He evidently does associate it with desire, but is that not the same as eros? Socrates declares that it is a human madness, a disease of the soul.

There are several manifestations and types of the sickness of tyrannical eros, but typically it is directed simultaneously at individual persons and would be a tyrant's polity. The diseased eros variously desires to use its beloveds not only as agents of sexual pleasure but also as slavish sources of wealth, position, and honor. The sick eros hopes to convert its polity into an instrument of world conquest that improves its domestic status; a guarantee of its illicit sexual and social interests; a tool that facilitates a tyrannical technician's conquest of nature; an engine that co-opts all mankind into its metaphysical revolt; a vast association organized to worship its metaphysical revolt; a vast association organized to worship the man who incarnates it; and the slavish power base that deifies the tyrant by making him ruler of the world . In all these forms, the diseased eros employs "moving logoi" that transfer the emotional effects of beauty from beautiful realities to itself in order to seduce the intended slaves, charming them into embracing the tyrant and the tyranny as beautiful.

Eryximachus explains that there two kinds of love in the human body. One love is healthy and the other is diseased. Their desires are unlike one another, and as Pausanias stated prior to this speech, to indulge good men is honorable, and bad men dishonorable, so too in the body the good and healthy elements are to be indulged, and the bad elements and the elements of disease are not to be indulged, but discouraged . On the other hand, Phaedrus articulated that eros could be a public expression if the cities rules for love permitted lovers to openly walk about like average citizens. Aristophanes thought Phaedrus was wrong to believe that one could let eros go public and still retain a private good: there is no non-lover; eros is definitive of the human and, as essentially political, rules our any transpolitical life defined by a transpolitical good available to man as man. The city is a world of falsehood from which there is no ascent and man is not merely suffering from a sickness, he is a sickness and this sickness has no cure .

Socrates battles with himself throughout the Symposium about the cures that could possibly heal or cure the aristocratic forms of the sickness, and the Phaedrus depicts them working to defeat his attempt to heal the democratic prototype of the disease. However, we might be able to apply Socrates' therapies to our own would-be tyrants with better results, if we catch their illnesses in time. According to Aristophanes, the only cure to the illness of love, plutonic love, or however these men may define it, is through eros. This is because Eros is not the chief attribute of human beings or the most prominent symptom of our illness, but a god or a divine physician who is able to overcome our suffering and heal our affliction .

Therefore love, or the sickness of love, was not only about inhibited love or desire, but the way in which one acted upon their desires. Medea believed in violence and revenge, not only because her honor had been put at stake, but also because the love that she professed for Jason was so great, thus turning to obsession. Chloe and Daphnis was merely a case of unrequited love, and love unconsummated until marriage. In Plato’s Symposium, the speeches touch on plutonic love and the acceptance of eros between two men, as long as it was behind closed doors. Yet, an underlying theme existed in the Symposium, which allowed the speech givers to understand the sickness of love expressed between two men, which only eros could be the cure.

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Work's Cited

• Berg, Steven. Eros and the intoxications of enlightenment: on Plato's Symposium. Albany: State University of New York Press, 2010.
• Rhodes, James M. Eros, Wisdom, and Silence: Plato's erotic dialogues. Columbia: University of Missouri Press, 2003.
• Jowett, Benjamin trans.Plato’s Symposium. Penguin Books Limited, London, 1956.

Lascaux Cave: Deciphering the Chinese Horse

The species of animal that captured my attention in the Lascaux cave was the Third Chinese Horse. Judging from the anatomical positioning of the limbs and the contours of the mane and thigh region, I am positive that the animal can be contributed to the equine family. However, I do not believe this animal in an ordinary horse, but possibly a wild hybrid or zebra. The problem is that zebras evolved in Africa and they are typically not the type of species roaming around France. Furthermore, the website designates this species as a Chinese Horse. I grew up with horses and my extensive knowledge of the species leads me to believe that this creature did not evolve in China. The Chinese Horse is more of a myth associated with the Samurai than an actual breed. There are Chinese horses like the Mongolian ponies, which have a likeness to the Third Chinese Horse painting at Lascaux cave, but the evolutionary time frame is completely inaccurate.

The Third Chinese Horse is located in the Axial Gallery on the right wall and is included with the Panel of Chinese Horses. The panel is located to the right of the Panel of the Falling Cow and The Red Panel. There are three Chinese Horses in total, one red cow facing left with the First Chinese Horse posterior to its rump, and another red cow appears to be upside down, located overhead the Third and Second Chinese Horses. Oddly, the Black Stag, which appears to be a reindeer, seems out of place with its curling antlers and coloration. There are also eleven dots below the finished stag, which are clearly some type of ideogram. There are twelve months in a year, but on the eleventh month, some type of ceremony or hunt must have taken place.

The Axial Gallery is inaccessible to individuals unless they know exactly where particular panels are located. The people who created the panel on the right wall must have realized this, which indicates that the scene was meant to represent a religious ceremony or a type of hunting magic. The horse is nestled behind another prehistoric equine and they are both facing the right direction. A red cow is facing left and appears to be in stride, as well as the Black Stag, that appears to be trotting. All the animals depicted in this panel have several characteristics in common. They are all quadrupeds, mammals with hooves, vegetarian, and they all require a certain amount of speed to escape predators, with the exception of the cow. The red cow is an interesting addition to this panel. Indians considered the red cow to be sacred and historically used its excrements for ritual purification. This is similar to the Hebrew Bible, which describes the ashes of a “red heifer” being used for purification (Hebrew Bible Num. 19:2). This animal may have been used in the same context during the Paleolithic.

The Third Chinese Horse does exhibit some remarkable contours as far as coloration and muscle exposure. There are thick yellow and black stripes, which reach from the back to the withers. There is also a dark coloration from the loins to the stifle and some spotting on the thighs, rump, and gaskin. This is not typical of the breed standard rumored to exist over 17,000 years ago, however DNA evidence is now suggesting otherwise. Several professors from the University of York have analyzed horse remains from several species originating in Europe and Asia. The gene that codes for the spotted horse was present over 35,000 years ago. Furthermore, the colors we see in Lascaux including the black and bay colors are clearly representative of the prehistoric species that existed during the completion of these paintings (Swift, 2011). The Third Chinese Horse is a realistic portrayal of the spotted equine during the Paleolithic period but there are some proportions on the spotted equine that are represented abstractly, or rather inaccurately, including the barrel. The barrel of a spotted horse tapers off near the elbow of the horse, and in the Lascaux cave depiction the barrel is tapered near the stifle. Every spotted horse is different of course, but anatomically this is how spotted horses appear today, and most likely appeared during the Paleolithic.

Moreover, the tail is decoratively braided high on the croup and there appears to be a tail bandage located posterior to the mid-thigh, leading me to believe this may have been an Arabian or Stallion. These horse breeds typically have tails, which reach higher on the croup, thus allowing for more flexibility in hairstyles and decorations, so the bandage makes sense in that aspect. The Romans, Greeks, and Native Americans applied tail bandages on long trips and during cavalry wars to prevent the tail from snagging on weapons. It also allowed the horse to stay cool on long marches during the hotter months.

The Third Chinese Horse is facing in the right direction. Its ears are pointed in one direction and its tail is down. This is extremely significant behavior. Horse’s ears always point in the direction in which they are paying attention to. It is not unusual for a horse to have one ear facing back and one facing forwards because their eyes allow them to look in two different locals. The Third Chinese Horse in looking forward and appears to be escaping an attack. There are two feathered arrows painted on the wall, only a few inches away from plunging into the animal. Consequently, it could represent a horse being used to trample another animal during a hunting party. We see this with Native Americans during Buffalo hunts, yet the horses do have riders, and they are more so used to coral the buffalo. The Chinese Horse is clearly a representation of power over another species using agility and intelligence.

The Upper Paleolithic peoples who painted in the Lascaux cave had a common ideology about hunting magic or religion. The culture was engrossed in ritual symbolism, and by creating some of these symbolic images, they believed that what they drew on the walls was the result of their endeavors, and not what they hoped would happen. It was a prediction in a sense, made true by writing it down and drawing it out. At Altamira in Spain, the bulls are strategically painted on the contours of the wall, making it seem like the bulls are alive. We see these parallels in artistic expression in The Great Hall of Bulls at Lascaux. The idea behind this, and the reason why only some Upper Paleolithic peoples painted on cave walls, is because there was a shared culture between them. This act of expression may not have permeated to other cultures, and if it did, their shared knowledge allowed them to produce artwork using different materials. This artwork may or may not have survived, which explains why we do not have archaeological evidence to prove geographical diffusion of particular styles of art.

It is clear to me, after viewing the cave art in Lascaux that people during the Upper Paleolithic moved about and spread out over the geographical landscape in caves, outside shelters, as well as open-air camps. The environment was exploited in various ways during the Upper Paleolithic because the amount of resources available to some cultures was vast. We find many examples of cave paintings in both France and Spain because the Upper Paleolithic people who made them chose to go underground, possibly to make them inaccessible to others. In China, Europe, and Africa, the paintings may have just disappeared, especially if they were susceptible to earth’s elements. Moreover, other cultures may have been invested more time in portable art, which has yet to be discovered.  

Take a virtual tour of Lascaux cave

Barbary Wars – when the US tangled with Libyan pirates

Libya has loomed in American minds for a generation. Colonel Qaddafi's erratic flirting with terror organizations left him a marked man by the US government, long before the Libyan people finally meted out their own justice. But that tangling-together of US interests, with a Libya eagerly testing its power, goes back much further than the 'mad dog' and 'line of death' insults first hurled back in 1986. In fact, names of Tripoli and Derna are etched deep into the military history of the United States during the Barbary Wars. Both the US Navy and the US Marines owe their genesis to the Libyan pirates who called the Libyan coast home some two hundred years ago.

Back in the 18th century, the Barbary pirates were the scourge of the seas off the coast of Africa and the Mediterranean. But this was no 'Pirates of the Caribbean' privateering. It was piracy as an instrument of state, The countries of Berber North African – the fiefdoms of Morocco, Tunisia, Algiers and Tripoli – were using their fleets to siphon money into the coffers of their rulers. And there was a long and profitable history from the kidnapping of merchant ship crews, and extracting ransom – a practice that various European powers had long acquiesced to. But the young United States nation was not about to play ball.

In the years immediately after the War of Independence, the nascent US state was weak. Trade was important to help rebuild the war-worn economy. But Americans ships, plying their trade across the Atlantic, quickly fell foul to the Barbary pirates. With no navy to speak of, the United States was forced to pay crippling tributes – sometimes amounting to more than a million US dollars. It was that humiliating drain on the American nation that spurred the setting up of the US Navy in 1794.

And in 1801, with Thomas Jefferson at the helm as newly-elected President, the US government decided it had had enough. It flatly refused the demands of the Pasha of Tripoli, Yusuf Karamanli, for a tribute of $225,000. Instead a fleet of 6 modern warships was dispatched to deal with the Barbary problem during the Barbary Wars. The Libyan pirates were to be blockaded. So the first gunpowder smoke wafted across the waves near Tripoli on August 1 1801, as the USS Enterprise confronted the Tripoli, a Tripolitan corsair: the First Barbary War had begun.

This first skirmish during the Barbary Wars proved a good omen for the US Navy, which was involved in its first-ever engagement. The 12 guns of the USS Enterprise were handled far more adeptly than the Tripoli's 14 guns, and the Barbary vessel eventually holed, and defeated decisively. While this was only a small engagement, the dramatic victory-in-arms galvanized the American public, and its Navy. The Libyan corsair fleet, by contrast, had its morale knocked sideways. But this was only the start of the naval skirmishing, which was to last several years. Final victory would only come when US Marines stepped ashore – again for their first-ever action.

In 1805, concerned at the way the naval blockade was dragging on during the Barbary Wars, the US hatched a deal with Hamet Karamanli, the legitimate ruler of Tripoli who had been displaced by the current Pasha – his younger brother Yussif Karamanli. Hamet would be re-installed on the Tripolitan throne, the US said, if he gave his blessing to an attack on Libya from Egypt. A mixed bag of Berbers, Arabs and mercenaries from Greece was then put together for the assault, which was to be led by the US Marines.

In April 1805, the US-led force cut through Libya from Egypt, to the city of Derna. While the US Navy pounded Derna's defenses, a three-pronged assault probed, and then took the city. In another dramatic first, the US Marines had taken part in their first land battle outside of the US – and a Marine legend was born. Countless generations of Marines-to-come were now destined to holler out ′to the shores of Tripoli' in the now-fabled Marines' Hymn.

But while the US Navy and US Marines were bathed in glory, double-dealings were at hand. The threat of a US march to Tripoli bought a change of outlook from the Pasha – and a betrayal of erstwhile allies by the American State Department. A peace treaty was signed with Yassif Karamanli, and his brother unceremoniously dumped. The mercenaries were never paid.

This wasn't the end of the rumbling conflict with the Barbary states – the war was to flare up again after renewed attacks on merchant vessels, this time by Algerians. But the first round of this Libyan-US discourse was to prove to be the forging of the American military, and of its ability to project its power around the world.

A superpower was stirring.

This is a guest post provided by Chee Seng, a blogger who writes about freeware reviews at Bestfreeonline.net/

Breaking News: The Senator Burns to the Ground

What a shame! In August of last year I wrote an article on The Senator. The Senator at Big Tree Park is one of the largest Cypress trees in America. The Senator was used as a landmark by the Seminole Indians, as well as the other Native American tribes in the area. During the Hurricane of 1925, the top of the Senator was destroyed, lopping off 47 feet of the original 165 feet.

© Ancient Digger

© Ancient Digger

© Cf New 13

Today, the Senator fell to the ground in a blaze, just minutes from my home.  The Orlando Sentinel is reporting that "they are awaiting a complete explanation for why investigators ruled out arson. If the fire wasn't set, how did it start? It's important to get answers because another massive cypress tree, Lady Liberty, is still standing at Big Tree Park. Though smaller and less elderly (2,000 years old instead of 3,500), it needs to be preserved and protected if security at the park is lacking."

Lats year I shot footage of my trip to the Senator, accompanied by music by Mary Gunderson. You can see it here in all its grandeur. What a sad day for Florida, as part of our history is lost

Spotlight on Alan Outram's Work on Horse History

Two years ago, British archaeologist Alan Outram published a paper in the journal Science that offered an important insight into how early civilizations developed.

Outram and his colleagues found evidence that horses had been domesticated 1,000 years earlier than previously thought, by the Botai people in what is now northern Kazakhstan. The researchers found differences in ancient equine bone structure, fossilized teeth that showed signs of human-made bits and the presence of mare’s milk in pottery shards – findings that were reviewed recently in the inaugural issue of National Geographic’s new quarterly magazine, Exploring History.

But Outram, who specializes in zooarchaeology (the study of ancient animal bones), also has a South Dakota connection. For the past eight summers, Outram has led a team of student archaeologists from the University of Exeter to excavate at the Prehistoric Indian Village dig site in Mitchell as part of an exchange program with Augustana College. Recent research, co-written with Landon Karr and Adrien Hannus at Augustana and published in the fall issue of the Journal of Field Archaeology, sheds new light on artifacts found between dwellings at the Mitchell site.

Source Argus Leader

History 101: Who Was Epicurus and the Epicureans?

The Epicureans believed that the key to happiness was the enjoyment of pleasure, although they did not advise the life of wine, women, and song that is today associated with the term “Epicurean”.

An epicurean typically partakes in simple pleasures, yet they also abstain from bodily desires such as sex and appetites verging on denial. Epicurus argued that when eating one should not eat too heavily, for it could lead to disappointment later, such as the grim realization that one could not afford such delicacies in the future. Likewise, sex could lead to increased lust and dissatisfaction with the sexual partner.

Epicurus established his philosophy based on the foundation of his ethical system in the material world, which he said was made up of tiny atoms moving through space in accordance with natural law. Epicurus, as well as all of the epicureans, believed in the existence of the gods. However, he did declare that Gods have no place in worldly affairs. It was thought that the gods were too far away from the earth to have any interest in what man was doing; so it did not do any good to pray or to sacrifice to them. The gods, they believed, did not create the universe, nor did they inflict punishment or bestow blessings on anyone, but they were supremely happy; this was the goal to strive for during one’s own human life.

Epicurus taught that oracles, omens, and dreams have no significance and he rejected all ideals of immortality and mysticism. He believed in the soul and even suggested that the soul is as mortal as the body. Epicurus rejected any possibility of an afterlife, while still contending that one need not fear death:

“Death is nothing to us; for that which is dissolved, is without sensation, and that which lacks sensation is nothing to us.”

Bertrand Russell describes the reception of Epicureanism’s conception of death:

[T]he fear of death is so deeply rooted in instinct that the gospel of Epicurus could not, at any time, make a wide popular appeal; it remained always the creed of a cultivated minority. Even among philosophers, after the time of Augustus, it was, as a rule, rejected in favour of Stoicism. It survived, it is true, though with diminishing vigour, for six hundred years after the death of Epicurus; but as men became increasingly oppressed by the miseries of our terrestrial existence, they demanded continually stronger medicine from philosophy or religion. The philosophers took refuge, with few exceptions, in Neoplatonism; the uneducated turned to various Eastern superstitions, and then, in continually increasing numbers, to Christianity, which, in its early form, placed all good in life beyond the grave, thus offering men a gospel which was the exact opposite of that of Epicurus.

Epicurus had no regard for politial and social life. The state to him was more of a convenience and the wise man should not participate in public life. Additionally, for Epicurus and his epicureans, happiness consisted primarily of freedom from physical pain and worldly cares and fears. One can not rid themselves of the evil in this world and thus should withdraw from philosophy, enjoy the fellowship of a few friends, and savor the serenity of your mind.

Although the ideals of Epicurus and the Epicureans stressed that overindulgence in all aspects of the world was frowned upon, it was not easily avoided for some. Even today, we experience the need to partake in petty privileges to feel satisfied. Not much as changed.

Also check out:

• Belief Net Quiz
• Symbols of the Theosophical Society
• The Unseen World
• The Philosophes and Their Contributions to Economics, Politics, and Education
• Rene Descartes

The Melian Dialogue: Its Place in Thucydides' History of the Peloponnesian War

Thucydides has fundamentally represented his personal view of policy, while keeping to his chosen convention of objective narrative in the History of the Peloponnesian War. The notes on Athenian intervention in the Peloponnese in support of Argos, which Thucydides has woven into the narrative of the last stages of the Melos affair, show that the Athenians were consciously following a policy which carried the risk of war with Sparta-a policy which was carried even further when Athens was already fully engaged in the war in Sicily . Essentially, the Melian Dialogue takes place against this backdrop of growing political polarization in the Greek world. It’s a classical dispute consisting of a false sense of honor and uncertainties over imperial expansion. However, the speech and form is comparable to Alcibiades' in Book Six; it may be tragically contradicted by events like the Pericles’ Funeral Speech; it may, like the Plataeans' speech, be a miserable attempt to avert a predetermined doom .

There is, however, an interesting diversion from the narrative, yet consistent with the oligarchic political Spartan character. The Melians "did not invite [the Athenian] representatives to speak before the people [as would be the custom in a democratic state like Athens], but asked them to make the statement for which they had come in front of the governing body and the oligarchic few" . Subsequently, A.B. Bosworth explains that Athenians use highly traditional arguments and the Melians who chose a position of sophistication. The language of the Melian Dialogue comes quite close to that used in “Thucydides’ criticism of the wisdom of the cities which swallowed Brasidas' propaganda and revolted after his capture of Amphipolis” .

The parallel within the text seems to be a false sense of honor and neorealism. Thucydides is not seen as a champion for neorealism but he does approach the Melian Dialogue using critical approaches to international relations theory. The Melians assume they can look into the future or cling to their liberty, which their city has enjoyed from its foundation for 700 years. Uncertainties had led the Melians to falsified realities, and thus, they are “judging the issue by the clouded eye of volition rather than calculations based on security, and following the human tendency to back their desires with uncritical hope and use sovereign reason only to reject what they find unpalatable” .

Thucydides’ Melian Dialogue shows us the eminent failure of the Melians to avert destruction through appeals to justice, essentially dramatizing the confrontation between naked power and morality. The Athenians have essentially made clear that if they are remain on friendly terms with the Melians, their subjects would regard it as a sign of weakness. Therefore, the hatred the Melians show towards the Athenians only solidifies the power that the Athenians have. In verse 89, the Athenians state, “since you know as well as we do that, when these matters are discussed by practical people, the standard of justice depends on the equality of power to compel” . Thus, power and the individuals who possess it defined what justice and morality represented. Those that had the power used it and those that didn’t accepted it. Consequently, power is actualized in political environments "where word and deed have not parted company, where words are not empty and deeds are not brutal, where words are not used to veil intentions but to disclose realities, and deeds are not used to violate and destroy but to establish and create new realities" .

The first conversation of the Melian Dialogue shows the interchange of practical realism and emotive moralizing. The Melians accept the Athenian invitation to discuss the crisis step by step but protest against their situation. It was hardly a humanitarian discussion. A.B. Bosworth argues that the Melian Dialogue was not humanitarian at all because of the brutality the Athenians used against Melos. However, he also argues that it could be humanitarian because, "they could only confront them with the reality of their position in the bluntest terms” . The dialogue initially steers the Melians into quite a predicament. They have to choose to surrender or have their nation destroyed for the sake of independence. It would seem that Thucydides’ point of view during the Melian Dialogue was biased in favor of the Melians because of his exile from Athens. W. Liebeschuetz, however, argues that the Athenians were fundamentally deluded because of their lack of morality in Melos’ destruction but also because the Athenians were perfectly right that the Melians’ own interest required that they should yield to the Athenians since they had not the strength to resist successfully .

The Melians came to the conclusion that, in order to win the debate between the Athenians, they had to appeal to justice. There’s no hope of survival based upon their resources, so calling upon justice as their defense in lieu of the Athenians potential, and expected attack, is amusing to the Athenians. The Athenians explain, “in our opinion you are unique in taking from these deliberations the conviction that future events are plainer than the situation before your eyes and viewing what is uncertain as a present actuality in your volition” . The Melian’s opinion of their own status according to the Athenians represents the ultimate triumph of hope over expediency, and the appeals to justice are simply an evasion of reality . The Athenian’s approach in the Melian Dialogue sets the stage, or rather deters the Melians from asking for justice. They have cunningly represented themselves and the Melians as equal parties, creating an illusion in the face of brute facts. This misconception cannot hide the fact that Athens holds the power whereas the Melians only hope is surrender, and they must simply endure this fact.

The Melian Dialogue, like many of the speeches within The History of the Peloponnesian War, allows readers to understand the way in which Athens created their empire. It’s not about the morality of the event or the confrontation, but about the Melian response to the Athenians’ first demand, that Melos should submit. Thucydides wants the reader to understand the contemplation and arguments between the parties, instead of the actual aftermath of the affair. Also, he wrote it in this manner simply because a dialogue really took place. In so doing, Thucydides deliberately used a sophistic dialectic in the writing of this dialogue. AB Bosworth doesn’t recognize the sophistic form and content, but he does explain that the dialogue allowed Thucydides to juxtapose the two perspectives more subtly than was possible in a single pair of contrasting speeches . Additionally, it enabled him to emphasize the weakness of the Melian position, as “every argument is dismissed as irrelevant, and the folly of resistance is illuminated from a variety of perspectives. Practicality not sophistry governs the debate” .

In Melian’s weakness they professed that “we who are still free would show you ourselves great cowards and weaklings if we failed to face everything that comes rather than to submit to slavery” . This statement, while poetic and prolific in its own right, is meant to convey a point or reinforce the Melian’s ideas of independence, pride and power. Their idea of power was the ability to face any such obstacles of politics and war, and they saw this as good enough reason for the Athenians to take haste and leave them be. The fact of the matter is that the Melians were weak. Their weakness compels Athens to incorporate them in her empire. There is no sanction they can invoke and no alliance or treaty to give them protection. Under such conditions justice is an irrelevancy and there is no point invoking it .

More Related Articles

Greek Week: Pericles 101
Aristocratic Life and Values in Homeric Greece
The Ionian Cultural Revolution

Resources

1. Alker, Hayward R. Rediscoveries and Reformulations: Humanistic Methodologies for International Studies. New York: Cambridge University Press, 1996.
2. Arendt, Hannah. The Human Condition. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1958.
3. Bosworth, A. B.. "The Humanitarian Aspect of the Melian Dialogue." The Journal of Hellenic Studies,. 13. (1993): 30-44. http://www.jstor.org/stable/632396 (accessed November 20, 2011).
4. Liebeschuetz, W. "The Structure and Function of the Melian Dialogue." The Journal of Hellenic Studies. 88. (1968): 73-77. http://www.jstor.org/stable/628672 (accessed November 20, 2011).
5. Macleod, C.W. "Form and Meaning in the Melian Dialogue." Historia: Zeitschrift für Alte Geschichte. 23. (1974): 385-400. http://www.jstor.org/stable/4435410 (accessed November 20, 2011).
6. Rustin, Jeffrey S. Oxford Readings in Classical Studies: Thucydides. New York: Oxford University Press, 2009.
7. Thucydides. History of the Peloponnesian War. London: Penguin Books Ltd, 1972.

Top Ten Posts: Sunday September 18, 2011

Find out what archaeology news and articles visitors are sharing every week on Ancient Digger. These posts are the most popular and read articles for the week, starting on Sunday and ending on Saturday.

1. Top Graduate Schools, Universities, and Colleges for Archaeology and Anthropology --I have compiled several lists in order to help you determine the best archaeology colleges and universities with the best programs for archaeology, as well as the top undergraduate colleges, universities and school programs for anthropology and archaeology.

2. The Wilderness and Scenery of Fossil Springs in Arizona--This video of Fossil Springs in Arizona has a whole Journey to the Center of the Earth vibe. Diving off the rocky cliffs and swimming up and under this amazing geological wonder makes me really appreciate the natural processes of the earth.

3. Best Schools For Nautical, Maritime, and Underwater Archaeology in the US--Typically nautical, maritime, and underwater archaeologists study artifacts in ocean or sea environments. However, specialization usually doesn't occur until graduate school after the student has received a BS in Anthropology.

4. Greek Architecture--The Greeks were gifted, being situated in an area with the highest quality stone. Of course the buildings that were derived from these stones were free of bronzed sculptures, polished monuments, and shrines painted with vivid colors.

5. Greek Statues: The Classic Forms of Kourous, Kritios Boy, and Discobolus--A comparative discussion of three famous Greek statues, providing not only beauty, but insight into the culture of the time in which they were created.

6. 30 Reasons Why You Should Become An Archaeologist--If you’re considering a field in archaeology and up to this point the only research you’ve done, is studying the Triple AAA guide to Archaeology schools or posting a question in yahoo answers about how to become an archaeologist, start reading—take it with a grain a sand if you will.

7. The Contributions and Legacy of the Hebrews--The law would not exist without Moses, who leads the Jews out of Egypt and a 40 year tradition of slavery. Moses walks into the mountains of Sinai and then returns with the Ten Commandments, presenting them to the Israelites.

8. The First, Second, and Third Punic Wars--Carthage was the richest state in the area, and with the influx of Carthaginians in Sicily, this made the Romans apprehensive about Carthaginian encroachment on the Italian coast. In 264, mutual suspicions drove the two powers into a struggle for the western Mediterranean. This ultimately led to the first Punic War in 264 BC, the Second Punic War with Hannibal Barca which was provoked by the alliance made with Rome and Carthage, and the Third Punic War which was caused by the broken peace treaty Carthage had made with Rome.

9. Best Graduate Schools for Classical Archaeology--Classical archaeology is a deeply interesting subject that has enchanted researchers and students for ages. Quite simply, it is the study of archaeological excavations from Ancient Greece and Rome. However, some only consider it to be the study of the Roman and Athenian civilizations, but it can include other subjects such as Minoan and Crete civilizations.

10. Islands at the Edge of the World – the Canaries Before the Conquest AD--Say 'Canary Islands', and most Europeans will have 'all-year-round holiday destination' leap into their minds. For many Americans, the scary phrase 'mega-tsunami' may be conjured up – courtesy of worries that the island's unstable volcanic slopes will one day collapse. But for all their modern-day familiarity as holiday-destinations – or harbingers of doom – when looked at historically, the Canary Islands were always an exotic outpost right on the edge of the map.

Islands at the Edge of the World – the Canaries Before the Conquest AD

Monday Ground Up Special Edition By Wozniacki


September 4, 2011--Say 'Canary Islands', and most Europeans will have 'all-year-round holiday destination' leap into their minds. For many Americans, the scary phrase 'mega-tsunami' may be conjured up – courtesy of worries that the island's unstable volcanic slopes will one day collapse. But for all their modern-day familiarity as holiday-destinations – or harbingers of doom – when looked at historically, the Canary Islands were always an exotic outpost right on the edge of the map.

Up until 500 years ago, cartographers would draw a line just west of these tiny volcanic fragments, and place on it the label 'here be monsters' – capturing the unknown essence of the oceans stretching westwards off of the map. But although right at the geographic limits of the Old World, for thousands of years, the Canary Islands have been anything but short of history. Before the Spanish planted Castile's flag – as part of their Conquest of the islands in the 15th century – Berbers, Romans, Arabs and even Greeks, may have come to explore these fascinating outposts.

The inhabitants the Spanish found living on the islands when they arrived in 1402, were described as from a different, more primal era. Labeled 'Guanches', the debate has raged ever since their origins. Some had them down as Phoenicians sailors and traders, others as prisoners abandoned by King Juba II of Numidia, back in 100 years BC. But DNA evidence has now conclusively pointed to the original Guanches as being of Berber-descent – an ancient people who lived in the North African mountains.


© R. Liebau (Reconstruction of a Guanche village Tenerife).


The first archaeological evidence left by the Guanches suggests that they arrived sometime before 1000 BC. They bought with them domesticated animals, such as sheep, goats and dogs, as well as grain crops from North Africa – suggesting that theirs was a settlement with a purpose. What is strange is that, for all their sea-faring skills in having to reach the islands – strong currents ensure it is very difficult to make landfall on the Canaries from North Africa. They had lost all ability to sail, even between islands, by the time the Spanish arrived on the scene.

But the ancient world certainly could, and did, reach them. Many think that the home of the nymphs who dwelt in the Garden of the Hesperides, from Greek legend, could have been on these very islands. The first reference in history, though, comes from the Romans. The famous Roman writer, Pliny the Younger, described them as being 'discovered' by the Juba II, King of Numidia, in the first century BC. He had sent an expedition from the dye-making port of Mogador in western Morocco, to explore the islands – perhaps drawn by the peak of Mount Teidu, which is clearly visible from the African coast.
His visit also gave rise to the name of the islands – Islas Canarias. By Pliny's account, Juba II found that the island peoples made use of particularly fierce dogs. So he called them the Islands of the Dogs, canis being the Latin for dog. Archaeologists have since found evidence that the Romans themselves visited on several occasions. Off of the coast of Lanzarote, Roman amphorae, for carrying wine and oils, were found at the site of a shipwreck. And excavations on the same island have found Roman pottery fragments, pieces of glass and metals – all dating to between the 1st and 4th Centuries AD. The Arabs too came to trade with the Guanches.

It appears that these earlier visitors left the peoples of the Canary Islands to themselves – unlike the Spaniards who arrived later. But what was life like for these original peoples? Archaeologists reckon that they lived quite simple lives, from a material point of view at least. Goat, sheep and pigs were all kept, they grew crops on small plots, and lived mostly in caves, or small round stone-huts. But spiritually they had a quite a sophisticated religious world, with a pantheon of deities, spirits and demons. Many gods were acknowledged, relating to the Sun and the Moon, the rain and the mountains. And no observer of the strangely compelling stone-carved hieroglyphics can fail to be touched by the Guanches deep connection to the lands they inhabited.

Politically, there was a definite diversity of approaches taken across the islands. In Gran Canaria, an hereditary autocracy appears to have held sway – but power was passed down through the mother's side of the family. Tenerife was split into 9 small kingdoms ruled by a 'Mencey', as the kings were known, whilst other islands are though to have elected their leaders. It was this cultural and political fragmentation that may ultimately have led to their downfall, however.

The Castillan adventurers who arrived from Spain were superior in both arms, and guile. One by one, each island and kingdom was subjugated in a campaign of violence, that exploited the differences between the different groups. But to their credit, these island peoples did fend off the Spanish Conquest for a century, with little more than Neolithic weapons of stone and wood. That is something that many other indigenous groups in the Americas would find hard to emulate.

And the Guanches are still here. Forgetting all the death, disease and slavery at the hands of their Conquistadors, DNA evidence shows that 10-35% of the genes of islanders comes from the Guanches. It would seems that today's Canary Islander is deeply connected to the original habitants of these fabled isles.

Top Ten Posts: September 4, 2011

Find out what archaeology news and articles visitors are sharing every week on Ancient Digger. These posts are the most popular and read articles for the week, starting on Sunday and ending on Saturday.

1. Top Graduate Schools, Universities, and Colleges for Archaeology and Anthropology --I have compiled several lists in order to help you determine the best archaeology colleges and universities with the best programs for archaeology, as well as the top undergraduate colleges, universities and school programs for anthropology and archaeology.
2. The Wilderness and Scenery of Fossil Springs in Arizona--This video of Fossil Springs in Arizona has a whole Journey to the Center of the Earth vibe. Diving off the rocky cliffs and swimming up and under this amazing geological wonder makes me really appreciate the natural processes of the earth.
3. Petra and the Bible--The highly publicized area of Petra has more significance than its modern-day use as a beautiful tourist location that many refer to as the rock-built “rose red” city. Although famously portrayed in such movies as Indiana Jones and the Last Crusade, Arabian Nights, and Sinbad and the Eye of the Tiger, the red city has deep roots in Biblical archaeology.
4. A Cursed Tomb and Colin’s Mummy--Using complicated tools to open the tomb and a strict scientific approach, the mummy is unleashed. Who knew the Egyptians had cured baldness or that mummies were from Canada!
5. Petoskey Stones Are Archaeological Artifacts--The Petoskey Stone is just one example of how sea life through history, captured in fossilized form, can provide insight into archaeological history. More specifically, Native Indian trade and tool making.
6. Best Graduate Schools for Classical Archaeology--Classical archaeology is a deeply interesting subject that has enchanted researchers and students for ages. Quite simply, it is the study of archaeological excavations from Ancient Greece and Rome. However, some only consider it to be the study of the Roman and Athenian civilizations, but it can include other subjects such as Minoan and Crete civilizations.
7. Greek Architecture--The Greeks were gifted, being situated in an area with the highest quality stone. Of course the buildings that were derived from these stones were free of bronzed sculptures, polished monuments, and shrines painted with vivid colors.
8. Best Schools For Nautical, Maritime, and Underwater Archaeology in the US--Typically nautical, maritime, and underwater archaeologists study artifacts in ocean or sea environments. However, specialization usually doesn't occur until graduate school after the student has received a BS in Anthropology.
9. US Archaeology and Anthropology Schools and their Disciplines--created this comprehensive list of Archaeology and Anthropology Schools in the United States and their Disciplines to assist students looking into the fields of anthropology and archaeology.
10. Planes used during World War I--Although Kitty Hawk North Carolina would become home to the first manned flight of human kind, the Germans would take these physical parameters into a whole new realm. As the skies offered another battlefield in which to kill and mame, countries that did not embrace this new arena were quickly left behind.