22 Archaeology Books every Future Archaeologist should be reading

Even before I began my education in anthropology and archaeology, I had read several books on theory and method, as well as researched diverse cultures and multiple religions. However, once I started taking classes, the required course books became some of the most impactful resources and tools I had at my disposable. Granted, Indiana Jones would say "If you want to be a good archaeologist, you have to get out of the library". However, what if you also love the research aspect of this discipline, which does require you to sift through hundreds of good and bad books, trying to decipher what's fact and what's opinion?

These books, all of which I have either read cover to cover for classes, or read out of pure enjoyment, all have something to offer archaeology students looking to get into the field.  The book that changed my focus from archaeology to anthropology is the first in my list.  The professor that taught from this book attend University of Pennsylvania and had a curious and sometimes confusing way of approaching the class, and yet, I learned more from his class than any other during my graduate work.

22 Archaeology Books every Future Archaeologist should be reading

Visions of Culture: An Introduction to Anthropological Theories and Theorists – I've read this book from cover to cover several times. This book made me love Herbert Spencer, and even today, I still reference the social organism every chance I get. This new edition of Jerry D. Moore's Visions of Culture presents introductory anthropology students with a brief, readable, and balanced treatment of theoretical developments in the field. (Ancient Digger's Top Pick, and favorite anthropology book

Archaeological Theory: An Introduction – Archaeological Theory, 2nd Edition is the most current and comprehensive introduction to the field available. Thoroughly revised and updated, this engaging text offers students an ideal entry point to the major concepts and ongoing debates in archaeological research.

The Bible Unearthed: Archaeology's New Vision of Ancient Israel and the Origin of Its Sacred Texts
– In this groundbreaking work that sets apart fact and legend, authors Finkelstein and Silberman use significant archeological discoveries to provide historical information about biblical Israel and its neighbors.

Patterns in Prehistory: Humankind's First Three Million Years, 5th Edition (Casebooks in Criticism)
– Patterns in Prehistory, Fifth Edition, is a comprehensive and engaging survey of humanity's past three million years ago. It brings together theories and archaeological examples to pose questions about who we are and the means by which humanity evolved into what it is today. Ideal for introductory courses in world prehistory and origins of complex societies, Patterns in Prehistory, Fifth Edition, offers a unified and thematic approach to the four great transformations--or patterns--that characterize humanity's past: the origins and evolution of culture; the origins of modern humans and human behaviors; the origins of agriculture; and the origins of complex societies, civilizations, and pre-industrial states. Integrating theoretical approaches with archaeological data from the Middle East, Mesoamerica, North and South America, Egypt, China, the Indus Valley, and temperate Europe, Patterns in Prehistory, Fifth Edition, reveals how archaeologists decipher the past. It demonstrates how theory and method are combined to derive interpretations and also considers how interpretations evolve as a result of accumulating data, technological advances in recording and analyzing data sets, and newer theoretical perspectives.

Friend by Day, Enemy by Night: Organized Vengeance in a Kohistani Community (Case Studies in Cultural Anthropology) – This particular discussion is about the road built to the isolated villages and how it changed the community. Interestingly, you would think with the addition of a new info structure, organized vengeance would fade to some sort of degree. This was not case, as the first highway system actually promoted it, linking villagers with a more modern economy and a new political system. Therefore, this new highway triggered sociocultural transitions in Thull that ultimately resulted in Dushmani.

Life in the Pueblo: Understanding the Past Through Archaeology – Within the effective format of a nontechnical case study, Life in the Pueblo provides an understanding of the basic methodologies in modern archaeology, including the formation of archaeological sites, dating, the role of ethnographic analogy, and analytic techniques like trace element sourcing, use-wear analysis, and carbon isotope determinations of diet. The archaeological interpretations are put into perspective by the inclusion of Hope and Zuni history and myth and the liberal use of ethnographic information from the Hopi and other historic and modern puebloan groups. A short fictional reconstruction of life in the village invites the reader to reflect on the fact that the past was a period occupied by people, not just potsherds. Based on four years of excavation and ten years of analysis of a puebloan site near modern Flagstaff, Arizona, this profusely illustrated volume captures readers' interest and imagination as it explores some of the fundamental principles of archaeology.

Native Religions of North America: The Power of Visions and Fertility – The diversity and continuities in American Indian spirituality! The religious life of Native Americans is a panorama featuring an immense diversity of beliefs, ceremonies, and ways of life. Native Religions of North America reflects this rich tradition as it admirably distills a complex subject in a practical and engaging manner. Through concise expression and careful choice of examples, Hultkrantz identifies the diversity and continuities in American Indian spirituality. He introduces the hunters and farmers, the past and present, and the physical contexts and the sublime speculations of tribal religions, even the subtle shades of meaning within an Indian community.

Ancient Egypt: An Introduction – This book provides an introduction to one of the greatest civilization of all time - ancient Egypt. Beginning with a geographical overview that explains the development of Egyptian belief systems as well as its subsequent political development, it examines methodology, the history of the discipline of Egyptology, religion, social organization, urban and rural life, and death. It also includes a section on how people of all ranks lived. Lavishly illustrated, with many unusual photographs of rarely seen sites that are seldom illustrated, this volume is suitable for use in introductory-level courses on ancient Egypt. It offers a variety of student-friendly features, including a glossary, a bibliography, and a list of sources for those who wish to further their interest in ancient Egypt.

Sexuality in Greek and Roman Culture – "Sexuality in Greek and Roman Culture" is the first comprehensive survey of ancient Greek and Roman sexuality. This title covers a wide range of subjects, including Greek pederasty and the symposium, ancient prostitution, representations of women in Greece and Rome, and the public regulation of sexual behavior. It introduces readers to the bitter theoretical debates that have been fought about gender and sexuality in the classical world. The material is ordered chronologically. This title draws parallels between ancient sexual ideology and contemporary culture. It also draws on literary, artistic and archaeological sources, as well as secondary scholarly sources. It was theoretically sophisticated and skillfully argued, yet accessible.

Lives in Ruins: Archaeologists and the Seductive Lure of Human Rubble – History is recorded in many ways. According to author James Deetz, the past can be seen most fully by studying the small things so often forgotten. Objects such as doorways, gravestones, musical instruments, and even shards of pottery fill in the cracks between large historical events and depict the intricacies of daily life. In his completely revised and expanded edition of In Small Things Forgotten, Deetz has added new sections that more fully acknowledge the presence of women and African Americans in Colonial America. New interpretations of archaeological finds detail how minorities influenced and were affected by the development of the Anglo-American tradition

In Small Things Forgotten: An Archaeology of Early American Life – History is recorded in many ways. According to author James Deetz, the past can be seen most fully by studying the small things so often forgotten. Objects such as doorways, gravestones, musical instruments, and even shards of pottery fill in the cracks between large historical events and depict the intricacies of daily life. In his completely revised and expanded edition of In Small Things Forgotten, Deetz has added new sections that more fully acknowledge the presence of women and African Americans in Colonial America.

A History of Ancient Egypt (Blackwell History of the Ancient World) –Outlining the major political and cultural events, A History of Ancient Egypt is an authoritative and accessible introduction to this fascinating ancient culture. An accessible chronological narrative that draws on a range of historical sources. Offers an up-to-date survey of ancient Egypt’s history from its origins to its domination by the Roman Empire. Considers social and economic life and the rich culture of ancient Egypt
Places Egypt’s history within its regional context, detailing interactions with Asia and Africa. Engages students with various perspectives on a range of critical issues with the Key Debate section included in each chapter. Makes the latest discoveries and scholarship accessible to a wide audience

The Quest for the Historical Israel: Debating Archaeology and the History of Early Israel (Archaeology and Biblical Studies) – Three decades of dialogue, discussion, and debate within the interrelated disciplines of Syro-Palestinian archaeology, ancient Israelite history, and Hebrew Bible over the question of the relevance of the biblical account for reconstructing early Israels history have created the need for a balanced articulation of the issues and their prospective resolutions. This book brings together for the first time and under one cover, a currently emerging centrist paradigm as articulated by two leading figures in the fields of early Israelite archaeology and history. Although Finkelstein and Mazar advocate distinct views of early Israels history, they nevertheless share the position that the material cultural data, the biblical traditions, and the ancient Near Eastern written sources are all significantly relevant to the historical quest for Iron Age Israel. The results of their research are featured in accessible, parallel syntheses of the historical reconstruction of early Israel that facilitate comparison and contrast of their respective interpretations.

Archaeology 6th Edition – This text pairs two of archaeology's most recognized names: Robert L. Kelly and David Hurst Thomas, who together have over seventy years of experience leading excavations. The sixth edition of ARCHAEOLOGY reflects the most recent research and changes in the field, while covering core concepts in an exceptionally student-friendly fashion using personalized examples and high-interest topics. This edition continues a tradition of combining academic rigor with an engaging writing style that has made ARCHAEOLOGY one of the most well-respected and best-selling texts in the discipline. A rich array of supplemental resources is available for purchase, including a book companion website, as well as a CD-ROM developed by the authors entitled DOING FIELDWORK: ARCHAEOLOGICAL DEMONSTRATIONS.

1177 B.C.: The Year Civilization Collapsed (Turning Points in Ancient History) – A compelling combination of narrative and the latest scholarship, 1177 B.C. sheds new light on the complex ties that gave rise to, and ultimately destroyed, the flourishing civilizations of the Late Bronze Age—and that set the stage for the emergence of classical Greece.

Archaeology Essentials: Theories, Methods, and Practice – This new brief version of the best-selling textbook was carefully rewritten to provide a readable and compact introduction to archaeology for those new to the field. No other book of this length can match its range of essential information and explanation. The vocabulary and the use of technical terms have been carefully reviewed. The amount of detail has been considerably reduced, and coverage of difficult or cutting-edge topics is made more accessible for students in courses that treat such subjects briefly. In particular, the coverage of archaeological theory and science has been substantially rewritten to provide a convenient overview without overwhelming the student. 220 black-and-white illustrations

The Complete Pompeii (The Complete Series) – With its lavish illustrations, covering monumental architecture and inscriptions, shops, graffiti, wall-paintings, and mosaics, plus its numerous box features ranging from theatrical entertainments to water supply, The Complete Pompeii is the ultimate resource and inspirational guide to this iconic ancient town.

The Last Days of the Incas–The epic story of the fall of the Inca Empire to Spanish conquistador Francisco Pizarro in the aftermath of a bloody civil war, and the recent discovery of the lost guerrilla capital of the Incas, Vilcabamba, by three American explorers.

Visions of Culture: An Introduction to Anthropological Theories and Theorists – I've read this book from cover to cover several times. This book made me love Herbert Spencer, and even today, I still reference the social organism every chance I get. This new edition of Jerry D. Moore's Visions of Culture presents introductory anthropology students with a brief, readable, and balanced treatment of theoretical developments in the field. (Ancient Digger's Top Pick, and favorite anthropology book

Archaeology for Dummies – This is the perfect archaeology for beginners book. Archaeology For Dummies offers a fascinating look at this intriguing field, taking readers on-site and revealing little-known details about some of the world's greatest archaeological discoveries. It explores how archaeology attempts to uncover the lives of our ancestors, examining historical dig sites around the world and explaining theories about ancient human societies. The guide also offers helpful information for readers who want to participate in an excavation themselves, as well as tips for getting the best training and where to look for jobs.

The Archaeology Book (Wonders of Creation) – Developed with three educational levels in mind, The Archaeology Book takes you on an exciting exploration of history and ancient cultures. You'll learn both the techniques of the archaeologist and the accounts of some of the richest discoveries of the Middle East that demonstrate the accuracy and historicity of the Bible.

Archaeology: Theories, Methods, and Practice (Sixth Edition) – Since its first edition, Renfrew and Bahn’s Archaeology: Theories, Methods, and Practice has been the leading academic source on what archaeologists do and how they do it. This indispensable resource is a comprehensive introduction to archaeology’s theories, methods, and practices in the field, the laboratory, and the library.

Gods, Graves & Scholars: The Story of Archaeology – C.W. Ceram visualized archeology as a wonderful combination of high adventure, romance, history and scholarship, and this book, a chronicle of man's search for his past, reads like a dramatic narrative. We travel with Heinrich Schliemann as, defying the ridicule of the learned world, he actually unearths the remains of the ancient city of Troy. We share the excitement of Lord Carnarvon and Howard Carter as they first glimpse the riches of Tutankhamen's tomb, of George Smith when he found the ancient clay tablets that contained the records of the Biblical Flood. We rediscover the ruined splendors of the Hanging Gardens of Babylon, one of the wonders of the ancient wold; of Chichen Itza, the abandoned pyramids of the Maya: and the legendary Labyrinth of tile Minotaur in Crete. Here is much of the history of civilization and the stories of the men who rediscovered it.

Augustan Programs Which Rejuvenated the Roman State

Augustus was the Roman Empires’ first emperor and was the grandnephew of Julius Caesar and adopted son. Augustus went by the name “Octavian” and he brought an end to civil war and appeared to be restoring the republic, but in actuality, he ruled as an autocrat. He was credited as heralding the start of the Roman Empire, which would last for over four centuries. Augustus transformed Rome stating, “He found a city of bricks and left it a city of marble”. During his rule, we saw the creation of a new order, a powerful new army, a new social order and reforms, and many literary accomplishments.

In 27 BC, the senate gave him the imperial title “Augustus” and he used this position to not only create a new order, but to reform the army. Augustus created a new constitutional order, which consisted of the preceps (Augustus) and the senate. The senate now had the ability to affect the law, but not without prior consent of the preceps. In actuality the preceps had little power, but up until 23 BC, Augustus had also held the position of consul, which gave him imperium. After Augustus gave up the consulship in 23 BC, he was given maius imperium, so his position of consulship was unnecessary. Augustus’ authority insured that the senate would always be filled with officials who supported him. Augustus was well liked and highly respected. Tacitus commented, “Indeed, he attracted everybody’s goodwill by the enjoyable gift of peace…Opposition did not exist”¹ . The civil unrest was waning and Augustus was growing even more powerful, yet the crucial source of his power was the new army he created.

The Roman Army

The command of the Roman army during Caesar’s rule was an executive political office therefore its undertaking could be risky business for unscrupulous generals. Only six months after the tyrannical Caesar was murdered, Augustus sought friendly relations with his generals and friends. The Roman army was a source of upward mobility for the provinces, since the army’s purpose was also to maintain domestic order within them.

Colonies of veterans were created under Augustus, which would prove especially valuable in Romanizing the provinces. Augustus’ army maintained a standing army of twenty-eight legions. Those legionaries served twenty years and were primarily recruited from the citizenry in Italy. There was also a large contingent of auxiliary forces, serving as light infantry and cavalry. The auxiliaries during Augustus numbered close to 130,000 and they were primarily non-citizens. They served twenty-four years and they received citizenship after their term of service.

Augustus also established the Praetorian Guard. The Praetorian Guard consisted of nine thousand men and they had the main responsibility of protecting the preceps. They were recruited from Roman citizens in Italy and served for sixteen years. The Praetorian Guard would eventually play a pivotal role in making and disposing of emperors. The preceps’ relationship with the Praetorian Guard gave rise to a new distinction. When the preceps was victorious in battle, his troops bestowed on him the title imperator.

Although the army had a hand in domestic negotiations in the provinces, it was now the job of the provincial governors. The deputies were assigned by the preceps and known as legates. The legates were from the senatorial class and held office until the emperor chose to allow them. Although a dual system of provincial administration seems to have been created, in reality the greater proconsular imperium that had been granted to Augustus essentially gave him the power to overrule the senatorial governors and thus to establish a unified imperial policy ² .

Adding Territories

All provincial governors received salaries, cutting down on extortion, which had characterized the Late Republic. Augustus’ new policy allowed for a certain amount of autonomy in the cities. City councils allowed leading citizens to maintain a stable government and they were often rewarded for their successes. Military campaigns were also utilized to consolidate natural boundaries of the Roman Empire and increase revenues, thus leading to the increased size of the Roman Empire overall.

Augustus added more Roman territory to the empire than any other Roman. Augustus encouraged client kingdoms in the east, thus allowing him to use his army elsewhere. In 19 BC, after the pacification of Spain, Augustus conquered the maritime and central Alps and then expanded control over the Balkans up the Danube River. Augustus was essentially opening the doors to Germany. Around AD 6, the Romans advanced between the Elbe and Danube, but they ran into some difficulties. In AD 9, three legions under Varus were massacred by a coalition of German tribes led by Arminius. The defeat made Augustus realize that Rome’s power was limited and she should maintain her present borders, instead of expanding.

The Social Order

The social order was also altered under Augustus. One needed to possess property worth one million sesterces to belong to the senatorial order. When Augustus took charge, the senate had over a thousand members. Augustus reduced its size to six hundred but also added new men from wealthy families throughout Italy. Overall, Augustus was successful in winning the support of the senatorial class for his new order.

Equestrians were also given a share of power in the new imperial state. All Roman citizens of good standing who possessed property valued at 400,000 sesterces could now hold military and governmental offices. Citizens not of the senatorial or equestrian orders were provided with free grain and public spectacles to keep them from creating disturbances. By gaining wealth and serving as lower officers in the Roman legions, it was sometimes possible for them to advance to the equestrian order.

Public Reforms

Augustus instigated many reforms while in power. He believed that public religion had been in civil disarray since the 1st century, so he decided to restore traditional priesthoods that had fallen into disuse in the Late Republic, rebuilt many ruined temples and shrines, and constructed new ones to honor the Roman gods. Augustus also instituted a new religious cult that would serve to strengthen the Roman Empire.

Augustus promised that he would interfere with the workings in the senate, but he was driven for justice and he wanted to resurrect Rome to the glory it once was. He never considered himself to be a god, but he did permit the construction of temples to his deified adoptive father, Julius Caesar. Augustus also permitted the buildings of temples to Augustus and Roma.

Augustus also believed that the center of Rome was corrupt and that increased wealth had undermined Roman simplicity. These lack of morals led to an increase in divorce, a falling birthrate among the upper classes, and lax behavior manifested in hedonistic parties and the love affairs of prominent Romans with fashionable women and elegant boys ³. Augustus looked to restore piouty in the Roman people, so he also made adultery a criminal offense. He revised tax laws and penalized unmarried men, widowers, and married couples who had fewer than three children.

Literature

The high point of Latin literature was also reached in the time of Augustus. The most distinguished poet of the Augustan Age was Virgil, who welcomed Augustus’ rule, and wrote his greatest work The Aeneid, in the emperor's honor. Horace, another prominent literary figure during the Augustan age, wrote the Satires, a combination of poems on a variety of subjects. Additionally, paying homage to Greek culture and literature, which flowed quite deeply throughout the city, Horace used the imaginary letter in verse-to provide a portrait of his friends and society and the things he held most dear: a simple life, good friends, and his beloved countryside.

Ovid was a youth who often ridiculed Roman values. His most notable work was the Metamorphoses, but it was The Art of Love, which pushed the boundaries of upper class Roman sexual morals. Augustus was not pleased, and Ovid ignored the wishes of Augustus to resist the urge to write such trifles. He paid a price for it in AD 8 when he was exiled for supposedly having sexual relations with the emperor’s daughter.

The most famous Latin prose work, written during Augustus, was by the historian Livy. Livy's masterpiece was a history of Rome from the foundation of the city to 9 BC written in 142 books. Livy's History of Rome celebrated Rome's greatness. He built scene upon scene that not only revealed the character of the chief figures but also demonstrated the virtues that had made Rome great. He also composed dome scathing work called the Rape of Lucretia.

The Age of Augustus saw the beginnings of the Roman Empire along with grand feats of architecture and a systematic principle for justification applicable to all people and their rights as citizens. The army continued to evolve in the Roman Empire as new emperors with effective leadership and organizational skills adopted new reforms, key to the success of the army and the empire. When Augustus finally died in AD 14, he left an order, which was so highly regarded and respected that few Romans looked for an alternative. Indeed, as the Roman historian Tacitus pointed out, "Actium had been won before the younger men were born. Even most of the older generation had come into a world of civil wars. Practically no one had ever seen truly Republican government.... Political equality was a thing of the past; all eyes watched for imperial commands”⁴.

Sources

1.  Spielvogel, Jackson J, Western Civilization. 7th Edition, (Belmonst: Thomson Higher Education, 2009).   
2. Ibid, p 109.
3. Ibid, p 152.
4. Colin M Wells, The Roman Empire, (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1995), 30

Dig Reveals Even More Secrets of Roman Mayport

An even more fascinating picture is emerging of Roman Maryport as excavations reach the halfway point.

The team had already identified at least one “monumental structure” on the hilltop which overlooks the Roman fort and the Senhouse Museum.

But now archaeologists believe that they have found evidence of more than one structure, some of which would have been supported by gigantic timber pillars.

Professor Ian Haynes of Newcastle University, who is leading the excavation, said that a lot of interesting features were coming up under the trowel.

But he was not prepared to “float any hypotheses” about what the structures had been -at least not yet. He said: “We have a lot of features and suggestions of not one but multiple structures coming through.

“What is crucial from an archaeological point of view is that we can see different features inter-cutting one another.”

A closer investigation of how these features relate to one another will help experts to establish a “sequence” or chronology for the site.

At present, archaeologists don’t know which of the structures actually came first.

Prof Haynes said that the picture emerging now appeared much more “complex” than it appeared on the basis of the 2011 excavations.

“What I’m seeing in terms of character and complexity is more exciting,” he said.

However, the excavations have been somewhat hampered by rainfall.

A certain amount of moisture on the ground can make it easier to spot remains but too much can destroy archaeological evidence and delay a dig.

“We are very much at the mercy of the elements,” he added.

Meanwhile, the next crop of volunteers were yesterday gearing up for the excavations.

Graham Ryan, 67, of Beckfoot was also at last year’s Maryport dig and has been involved in excavations at the Roman fort and also the settlement of Vindolanda. He said: “Everybody is excited and perhaps we will know the full story this year.”

Last year’s excavation helped debunk an age-old myth when the team proved beyond doubt that the Roman altars found on the site had not been buried as part of a religious ritual but had been used in the foundation of the hilltop structures now being investigated.

The Senhouse Roman Museum Trust and Newcastle University started the second year of excavation of the Hadrian’s Wall Trust-owned Camp Farm last month.

The Trust-funded excavation is understood to be costing between £60,000 and £100,000.

Source: New and Star 

Roman Mosaics Discovered By Bulgarian Archaeologists

Archaeologists digging in the Bulgarian city of Stara Zagora have discovered an exquisite Roman floor mosaic, after excavating in the pit of a newly constructed block of flats just outside what used to be the northern gate of the ancient Roman settlement of Augusta Trayana in Stara Zagora.

Archaeologist Dimitar Yankov stated, "The figures are very realistic, with the mosaic's tiny tiles varying in all shades of colors to depict their clothing, movements, facial expressions, hair and jewelry".

According to Yankov, the find is dated to late 2nd or early 3rd century A.D. .

Petra and the Bible

The highly publicized area of Petra has more significance than its modern-day use as a beautiful tourist location that many refer to as the rock-built “rose red” city. Although famously portrayed in such movies as Indiana Jones and the Last Crusade, Arabian Nights, and Sinbad and the Eye of the Tiger, the red city has deep roots in Biblical archaeology. Even so, it continues to be of high interest to many, including world travelers, Biblical Archaeologists and historians.

The city is known for its beautiful rock cut architecture that dates back to the BCE late century. As a semi-fortress, it was attractive to kings because it was easier to control and protect than other nearby geographic locations. The Edomites, Nabataeans and the Romans found it to be of significant economical and archaeological advantage, because of its close 80-kilometer proximity to the Dead Sea and narrow entrance.

The Edomites Run the Red City

Although some historians believe that the actual rose red city may not have been included within Edomite rule, the surrounding area of the city was called Edom, and was ruled by the Edomites beginning near 1200 BCE. The Edomites were a resourceful people and they controlled the majority of the spice trade from South Arabia to the northern area of Damascus. Their society was described as one of distinction and sophistication with creative outlets that included writing, textile production, ceramics and skilled-metal products.

Nabataeans Take Over and Rule

When an Arab tribe called the Nabataeans migrated to Edom in 312 BCE, this forced the wise Edomites into the southern Palestinian area. When this occurred, the Nabataeans began to increase the economic and archaeological advantages that the Edomites had begun. Working to create a flourishing capitol, the Nabataeans extended spice trade acquisition, by lengthening the route to include Northwest Gaza, Palmyra and the Syrian Desert, and the Aqaba area.

They also began to build some of the famous tourist monuments that are now protected as a UNESCO World Heritage Site. The Nabataens began to utilize the red rock as the main resource for territorial expansion. Today, tourist can see the evidence of Nabataen and Roman architecture, including the famous Colonnaded Street, the Temple of Winged Lions, and the great Treasury building.

Other famous sites that are connected to the planned complex include the famous East and West Propylaeum, the upper and lower Temenos and the Great Temple. Yet, one of their most significant advantages in their society was the development of a hydraulically engineered system that helped control winter water, and helped to provide an adequate means of water conservation.

Roman Empire Influences

General Pompey of the Roman Empire was the first in Roman succession to take over the rose red city and surrounding areas. Through his rule, the Romans began to expand the red city capital, and they made it official by calling the provincial area Arabia Petraea. It is estimated that the Roman takeover began between the years of 64 to 63 BCE.

The majority of monuments and tombstones within the red city were primarily made of limestone and sandstone. Although the Romans had their own cultural influences that they brought to the area, they added a mix of both Roman and Nabataean influences to renovate buildings and to add new architectural additions to enhance the city. The King’s Highway or Via Traiana is one of the most fascinating contributions to the rose red city that was left by the Romans.

Herod the Great and other Bible Connections

The red city has held both Christological influences from the Bible and pagan aristocratic influences. With the unearthing of rock-cut monuments and mosaics, these influences have become highly connected with biblical archaeology. Yet, many of the references to the Bible are obscure.

However, many historians of biblical archaeology have connected the red city with the biblical passages found in the 16th and 42nd chapters of the book of Isaiah. In these passages, historians believe these Biblical mention of Selah are actual references to the red city. Yet, there are similar references to the red city in the biblical books of Obadiah and Amos.

Herod the Great ran the Roman Empires and there was strong biblical reference that stated his desire to kill the baby Jesus. Even so, Herod I, as he was known, had familial roots in the red city. He was the second born son, and his father provided service under a high-ranking Nabataean public official. However, Herod's mother, Cypros, was the princess of the red city, Jordan and Nabatia.

Further still, his father was called Antipater the Idumaean, and the Idumaeans were historically considered a direct lineage of the Edomites, which were forced out of the area because of the Nabataeans. Ironically, the biblical passages that historians use to compare the rose red city and Selah as the same city, encouraged those that were persecuted to hide in the Siq, or the very same place where Herod I acquired his familial lineage.

Furthermore, biblical reference to the Siq, the entrance to the red city, describes the location as a dusty sand-prone area. Even today, the Siq is known for its loose sandstone and limestone deposits that are still of great value to archaeologists and scientists that hope to uncover more hidden treasures from Roman, Nabataean and Edomite culture.

Rose Red City Architecture

Rock architecture was the main way that Romans and other ancient societies built structures like Petra. Rock cut architecture is an ancient building process that uses existing rock formations to build living quarters, religious temples and specific-use buildings. Although some forms of this architectural process is still used today to build cliff-hanging houses, the Romans built theaters, cave dwellings and tombs using this method.

Besides the Great Temple and the Treasury building, they also lived among many other astonishing rock buildings as a part of the Colonnaded Street plan. Building construction along this street included the East Exedra with its famous niche of seating, the vaulted chambers and arches of the Theatron and the modern-like Roman-Byzantine Bathing House with its drainage pipes. The city building plan also included the creation of the Great Cistern, the East Triple Colonnade and the Baroque Room Complex. Influences from the Roman Empire and Nabataeans are often blurred within Petra, but what remains is a beautiful contribution to human creativity and perseverance in an area that was unlikely to support life.

All pictures © evkr

Author Bio:

Ms. Leah L. Logan enjoys all types of writing, including article writing, journalism, and ghostwriting. Ms. Logan is a two-time international author with the release of the co-authored books “Removing the Mask: Living an Authentic Life” and “Self Architect: Redesigning Your Life” both edited by Linda Ellis Eastman.

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Mysterious Roman Jar Presents a Riddle For Archaeologists

It’s always a surprise to find an artifact packed safety away in museum storage for later investigation. However, what happens when an archaeological piece, such as the 1800 year old Roman Jar discovered in a storage room at the Museum of Ontario Archaeology, turns up broken into dozens of pieces?

The Roman jar discovered measures 40 centimeters tall and was found shattered into an unrecognizable 180 pieces. Even if the jar is fully restored, scientists still have nothing comparable to the artifact to even venture a guess about its history or significance.

"Everyone's stumped by it," Katie Urban, one of the researchers at the London, Ontario, museum, told LiveScience. "We've been sending it around to all sorts of Roman pottery experts and other pottery experts, and no one seems to be able to come up with an example."

The jar was given to the museum in the 1950s by William Francis Grimes. Grimes' team had dug them out of a World War II bomb crater in London, England, not far from an ancient temple dedicated to Mithra, an Iranian god who was popular throughout the Roman Empire.

Read the full story at Live Science