22 Archaeology Books every Future Archaeologist should be reading

Even before I began my education in anthropology and archaeology, I had read several books on theory and method, as well as researched diverse cultures and multiple religions. However, once I started taking classes, the required course books became some of the most impactful resources and tools I had at my disposable. Granted, Indiana Jones would say "If you want to be a good archaeologist, you have to get out of the library". However, what if you also love the research aspect of this discipline, which does require you to sift through hundreds of good and bad books, trying to decipher what's fact and what's opinion?

These books, all of which I have either read cover to cover for classes, or read out of pure enjoyment, all have something to offer archaeology students looking to get into the field.  The book that changed my focus from archaeology to anthropology is the first in my list.  The professor that taught from this book attend University of Pennsylvania and had a curious and sometimes confusing way of approaching the class, and yet, I learned more from his class than any other during my graduate work.

22 Archaeology Books every Future Archaeologist should be reading

Visions of Culture: An Introduction to Anthropological Theories and Theorists – I've read this book from cover to cover several times. This book made me love Herbert Spencer, and even today, I still reference the social organism every chance I get. This new edition of Jerry D. Moore's Visions of Culture presents introductory anthropology students with a brief, readable, and balanced treatment of theoretical developments in the field. (Ancient Digger's Top Pick, and favorite anthropology book

Archaeological Theory: An Introduction – Archaeological Theory, 2nd Edition is the most current and comprehensive introduction to the field available. Thoroughly revised and updated, this engaging text offers students an ideal entry point to the major concepts and ongoing debates in archaeological research.

The Bible Unearthed: Archaeology's New Vision of Ancient Israel and the Origin of Its Sacred Texts
– In this groundbreaking work that sets apart fact and legend, authors Finkelstein and Silberman use significant archeological discoveries to provide historical information about biblical Israel and its neighbors.

Patterns in Prehistory: Humankind's First Three Million Years, 5th Edition (Casebooks in Criticism)
– Patterns in Prehistory, Fifth Edition, is a comprehensive and engaging survey of humanity's past three million years ago. It brings together theories and archaeological examples to pose questions about who we are and the means by which humanity evolved into what it is today. Ideal for introductory courses in world prehistory and origins of complex societies, Patterns in Prehistory, Fifth Edition, offers a unified and thematic approach to the four great transformations--or patterns--that characterize humanity's past: the origins and evolution of culture; the origins of modern humans and human behaviors; the origins of agriculture; and the origins of complex societies, civilizations, and pre-industrial states. Integrating theoretical approaches with archaeological data from the Middle East, Mesoamerica, North and South America, Egypt, China, the Indus Valley, and temperate Europe, Patterns in Prehistory, Fifth Edition, reveals how archaeologists decipher the past. It demonstrates how theory and method are combined to derive interpretations and also considers how interpretations evolve as a result of accumulating data, technological advances in recording and analyzing data sets, and newer theoretical perspectives.

Friend by Day, Enemy by Night: Organized Vengeance in a Kohistani Community (Case Studies in Cultural Anthropology) – This particular discussion is about the road built to the isolated villages and how it changed the community. Interestingly, you would think with the addition of a new info structure, organized vengeance would fade to some sort of degree. This was not case, as the first highway system actually promoted it, linking villagers with a more modern economy and a new political system. Therefore, this new highway triggered sociocultural transitions in Thull that ultimately resulted in Dushmani.

Life in the Pueblo: Understanding the Past Through Archaeology – Within the effective format of a nontechnical case study, Life in the Pueblo provides an understanding of the basic methodologies in modern archaeology, including the formation of archaeological sites, dating, the role of ethnographic analogy, and analytic techniques like trace element sourcing, use-wear analysis, and carbon isotope determinations of diet. The archaeological interpretations are put into perspective by the inclusion of Hope and Zuni history and myth and the liberal use of ethnographic information from the Hopi and other historic and modern puebloan groups. A short fictional reconstruction of life in the village invites the reader to reflect on the fact that the past was a period occupied by people, not just potsherds. Based on four years of excavation and ten years of analysis of a puebloan site near modern Flagstaff, Arizona, this profusely illustrated volume captures readers' interest and imagination as it explores some of the fundamental principles of archaeology.

Native Religions of North America: The Power of Visions and Fertility – The diversity and continuities in American Indian spirituality! The religious life of Native Americans is a panorama featuring an immense diversity of beliefs, ceremonies, and ways of life. Native Religions of North America reflects this rich tradition as it admirably distills a complex subject in a practical and engaging manner. Through concise expression and careful choice of examples, Hultkrantz identifies the diversity and continuities in American Indian spirituality. He introduces the hunters and farmers, the past and present, and the physical contexts and the sublime speculations of tribal religions, even the subtle shades of meaning within an Indian community.

Ancient Egypt: An Introduction – This book provides an introduction to one of the greatest civilization of all time - ancient Egypt. Beginning with a geographical overview that explains the development of Egyptian belief systems as well as its subsequent political development, it examines methodology, the history of the discipline of Egyptology, religion, social organization, urban and rural life, and death. It also includes a section on how people of all ranks lived. Lavishly illustrated, with many unusual photographs of rarely seen sites that are seldom illustrated, this volume is suitable for use in introductory-level courses on ancient Egypt. It offers a variety of student-friendly features, including a glossary, a bibliography, and a list of sources for those who wish to further their interest in ancient Egypt.

Sexuality in Greek and Roman Culture – "Sexuality in Greek and Roman Culture" is the first comprehensive survey of ancient Greek and Roman sexuality. This title covers a wide range of subjects, including Greek pederasty and the symposium, ancient prostitution, representations of women in Greece and Rome, and the public regulation of sexual behavior. It introduces readers to the bitter theoretical debates that have been fought about gender and sexuality in the classical world. The material is ordered chronologically. This title draws parallels between ancient sexual ideology and contemporary culture. It also draws on literary, artistic and archaeological sources, as well as secondary scholarly sources. It was theoretically sophisticated and skillfully argued, yet accessible.

Lives in Ruins: Archaeologists and the Seductive Lure of Human Rubble – History is recorded in many ways. According to author James Deetz, the past can be seen most fully by studying the small things so often forgotten. Objects such as doorways, gravestones, musical instruments, and even shards of pottery fill in the cracks between large historical events and depict the intricacies of daily life. In his completely revised and expanded edition of In Small Things Forgotten, Deetz has added new sections that more fully acknowledge the presence of women and African Americans in Colonial America. New interpretations of archaeological finds detail how minorities influenced and were affected by the development of the Anglo-American tradition

In Small Things Forgotten: An Archaeology of Early American Life – History is recorded in many ways. According to author James Deetz, the past can be seen most fully by studying the small things so often forgotten. Objects such as doorways, gravestones, musical instruments, and even shards of pottery fill in the cracks between large historical events and depict the intricacies of daily life. In his completely revised and expanded edition of In Small Things Forgotten, Deetz has added new sections that more fully acknowledge the presence of women and African Americans in Colonial America.

A History of Ancient Egypt (Blackwell History of the Ancient World) –Outlining the major political and cultural events, A History of Ancient Egypt is an authoritative and accessible introduction to this fascinating ancient culture. An accessible chronological narrative that draws on a range of historical sources. Offers an up-to-date survey of ancient Egypt’s history from its origins to its domination by the Roman Empire. Considers social and economic life and the rich culture of ancient Egypt
Places Egypt’s history within its regional context, detailing interactions with Asia and Africa. Engages students with various perspectives on a range of critical issues with the Key Debate section included in each chapter. Makes the latest discoveries and scholarship accessible to a wide audience

The Quest for the Historical Israel: Debating Archaeology and the History of Early Israel (Archaeology and Biblical Studies) – Three decades of dialogue, discussion, and debate within the interrelated disciplines of Syro-Palestinian archaeology, ancient Israelite history, and Hebrew Bible over the question of the relevance of the biblical account for reconstructing early Israels history have created the need for a balanced articulation of the issues and their prospective resolutions. This book brings together for the first time and under one cover, a currently emerging centrist paradigm as articulated by two leading figures in the fields of early Israelite archaeology and history. Although Finkelstein and Mazar advocate distinct views of early Israels history, they nevertheless share the position that the material cultural data, the biblical traditions, and the ancient Near Eastern written sources are all significantly relevant to the historical quest for Iron Age Israel. The results of their research are featured in accessible, parallel syntheses of the historical reconstruction of early Israel that facilitate comparison and contrast of their respective interpretations.

Archaeology 6th Edition – This text pairs two of archaeology's most recognized names: Robert L. Kelly and David Hurst Thomas, who together have over seventy years of experience leading excavations. The sixth edition of ARCHAEOLOGY reflects the most recent research and changes in the field, while covering core concepts in an exceptionally student-friendly fashion using personalized examples and high-interest topics. This edition continues a tradition of combining academic rigor with an engaging writing style that has made ARCHAEOLOGY one of the most well-respected and best-selling texts in the discipline. A rich array of supplemental resources is available for purchase, including a book companion website, as well as a CD-ROM developed by the authors entitled DOING FIELDWORK: ARCHAEOLOGICAL DEMONSTRATIONS.

1177 B.C.: The Year Civilization Collapsed (Turning Points in Ancient History) – A compelling combination of narrative and the latest scholarship, 1177 B.C. sheds new light on the complex ties that gave rise to, and ultimately destroyed, the flourishing civilizations of the Late Bronze Age—and that set the stage for the emergence of classical Greece.

Archaeology Essentials: Theories, Methods, and Practice – This new brief version of the best-selling textbook was carefully rewritten to provide a readable and compact introduction to archaeology for those new to the field. No other book of this length can match its range of essential information and explanation. The vocabulary and the use of technical terms have been carefully reviewed. The amount of detail has been considerably reduced, and coverage of difficult or cutting-edge topics is made more accessible for students in courses that treat such subjects briefly. In particular, the coverage of archaeological theory and science has been substantially rewritten to provide a convenient overview without overwhelming the student. 220 black-and-white illustrations

The Complete Pompeii (The Complete Series) – With its lavish illustrations, covering monumental architecture and inscriptions, shops, graffiti, wall-paintings, and mosaics, plus its numerous box features ranging from theatrical entertainments to water supply, The Complete Pompeii is the ultimate resource and inspirational guide to this iconic ancient town.

The Last Days of the Incas–The epic story of the fall of the Inca Empire to Spanish conquistador Francisco Pizarro in the aftermath of a bloody civil war, and the recent discovery of the lost guerrilla capital of the Incas, Vilcabamba, by three American explorers.

Visions of Culture: An Introduction to Anthropological Theories and Theorists – I've read this book from cover to cover several times. This book made me love Herbert Spencer, and even today, I still reference the social organism every chance I get. This new edition of Jerry D. Moore's Visions of Culture presents introductory anthropology students with a brief, readable, and balanced treatment of theoretical developments in the field. (Ancient Digger's Top Pick, and favorite anthropology book

Archaeology for Dummies – This is the perfect archaeology for beginners book. Archaeology For Dummies offers a fascinating look at this intriguing field, taking readers on-site and revealing little-known details about some of the world's greatest archaeological discoveries. It explores how archaeology attempts to uncover the lives of our ancestors, examining historical dig sites around the world and explaining theories about ancient human societies. The guide also offers helpful information for readers who want to participate in an excavation themselves, as well as tips for getting the best training and where to look for jobs.

The Archaeology Book (Wonders of Creation) – Developed with three educational levels in mind, The Archaeology Book takes you on an exciting exploration of history and ancient cultures. You'll learn both the techniques of the archaeologist and the accounts of some of the richest discoveries of the Middle East that demonstrate the accuracy and historicity of the Bible.

Archaeology: Theories, Methods, and Practice (Sixth Edition) – Since its first edition, Renfrew and Bahn’s Archaeology: Theories, Methods, and Practice has been the leading academic source on what archaeologists do and how they do it. This indispensable resource is a comprehensive introduction to archaeology’s theories, methods, and practices in the field, the laboratory, and the library.

Gods, Graves & Scholars: The Story of Archaeology – C.W. Ceram visualized archeology as a wonderful combination of high adventure, romance, history and scholarship, and this book, a chronicle of man's search for his past, reads like a dramatic narrative. We travel with Heinrich Schliemann as, defying the ridicule of the learned world, he actually unearths the remains of the ancient city of Troy. We share the excitement of Lord Carnarvon and Howard Carter as they first glimpse the riches of Tutankhamen's tomb, of George Smith when he found the ancient clay tablets that contained the records of the Biblical Flood. We rediscover the ruined splendors of the Hanging Gardens of Babylon, one of the wonders of the ancient wold; of Chichen Itza, the abandoned pyramids of the Maya: and the legendary Labyrinth of tile Minotaur in Crete. Here is much of the history of civilization and the stories of the men who rediscovered it.

Wall Collapses at Pompeii

Philip Pullella

Part of the wall of a house in the ancient city of Pompeii collapsed on Friday, raising fresh concerns about the state of one of the world's most treasured archaeological sites.

Officials said the wall was part of a 2,000-year-old house on the Vicolo del Modesto, in a section of the site that had already been declared off limits to the public for safety reasons.

About two square metres (yards) of the wall were involved in the collapse, which occurred after heavy rain storms in most of southern Italy.

The street where the collapse took place is located in an area of the dig that came to light in excavations in the 19th century.

Ancient Pompeii, which is a UNESCO World Heritage site, was frozen in time when Mount Vesuvius erupted in 79 AD, burying inhabitants alive and preserving their homes.

It has been the scene of a string of collapses in recent years, sparking international worry about the decay and perilous condition of the site. There were at least two serious collapses in 2011 and four in 2010.

The most serious was in 2010 when part of the "House of the Gladiators" - once used by gladiators to train before combat - crumbled.

Source: Reuters

Pompeii: Erotic Art and Roman Sexuality

If you missed the documentary on eros and erotic art in Pompeii , make sure you do before taking a look at this in depth study into Pompeii's sexual past. 

Pompeii is an archaeological site, which was destroyed around AD 79 by Mount Vesuvius. It was a town full of aristocrats and artisans. Artisans who were previously slaves, who gained freedom in Pompeii and became wealthy merchants.

Pompeii was a place for the super-rich! The Palm Beach of the Roman world. It was a place known for sexual indiscretions. One could choose his or her desires from a list of murals, pointing in the direction of their sexual preference.

You would hang your belongings on a peg, a peg conveniently located near an erotic scene, a reminder of where you left your things. Then you would proceed with your indiscretions in secret rooms or bathhouses.

Sex was a completely normal and fulfilling experiencing in Pompeii, and most of what we know about the eroticism that took place there was left on the walls. For 1700 years, this Greco Roman town lay buried in a blanket of ash and pumice, until archaeologists unearthed a town home to 20000 people. Beginning excavations were haphazard and damaging, yet while methods of archaeology were more refined, more artifacts more discovered. Some of the most recognizable and erotic art and archaeological finds in Pompeii were statues, large pools, and several murals of Priapus.


It is important to remember that all of the artwork in Pompeii discovered thus far has a much deeper meaning for the people that lived there. The Pompeians were enamored with eros and this obsession drove them to experiment with love, take risks with questionably clean prostitutes, and often drove men to partake in lewd acts with anything with a pulse. Is this the reason for the amount of sex that took place at Pompeii? Possibly.

Sex and pornography in Pompeii were looked at as a completely normal aspect of human nature, and yet many modern cultures were ethnocentric in their own ideals and portrayals of what was sexually accepted out in the open. So what did the people of Pompeii think about the power of eros, sex, and pornography, what did modern cultures think, and why were sexually explicit items created?

Eros is the son of Aphrodite who essentially meddles in the affairs of gods and mortals, causing bonds of love to form, often illicitly. In early Greek art, Eros is depicted as a adult male with sexual prowess, but later becomes cupid, the blindfolded and childlike boy who flies around, shooting his arrows at unsuspecting individuals destined for love, with a little push of course. Eros draws one thing to another by attraction or even gravity. Hesiod, one of the earliest poets, writes a book called Theogony. He explains that Eros existed long before the goddess of love, Aphrodite. According to many philosophers, Eros was an awe-inspiring universal force. Eros (Love), is the fairest among the deathless gods, who unnerves the limbs and overcomes the mind, and counsels of all gods and all men within them. Pre-Socratic philosophers believed Eros was a natural force responsible for creation. It was not just good or bad, but destructive. Eros was vital because it operated as a social concept, yet it had moral implications. It was hard to control because in many cases, individuals would become slaves to it. This may have been the case in Pompeii.


Sex was less inhibited in Pompeii than it is today in most countries. There were few prohibitions and sex was just one aspect, albeit a very significant one, of human nature. The motto in Pompeii, which could be found on the erotic art and walls, drinking vessels, as well as plaques, read "enjoy life while you can for tomorrow is uncertain". Sex ranked as a great way to enjoy oneself and others, and while the stereotypical Roman orgies were most likely not part of daily life, certainly sex was acceptable, practiced, and celebrated.

Sarah Robinson writes:

There may have been a wide variety of sexual images on display in Pompeii, but it was incredibly unlikely that they were used to sexually excite spectators. Sexually explicit art was found among landscapes and other mythological art in rooms off kitchens, slave quarters, and other common areas. From the Roman point of view, the sex may have been noticeable, but it was not noteworthy and it did not set these pictures apart from landscapes and ordinary mythological depictions. The Romans seemed proud of their paintings, displaying them in full view of the public because of this pride. Sometimes the pictures were meant to give a sense of life’s pleasures¹.

Loth notes that, “Among the ancients, sex was unashamedly joyous, in reading as in practice. The subjects carried no more taboos than food or sports, family quarrels or international wars.” These taboos were much more than modern cultures like the Victorians could endure, with their prudish ways and undeniable attitude of perfection. The Victorians believed the art at Pompeii was “obscene” by their own standards. There were depictions of sexual acts in almost every home and bathhouse, as well as many public spaces. There were other scenes on display in Pompeii depicting homosexuality, oral sex, and variety of sexual positions. The sexually explicit pictures found all over Pompeii were, “Proper pictures to have around your house. If you have a proper picture collection, you must have some really good pictures of people doing it, and if you don’t well you just don’t have any taste and don’t understand the proper values of your society”⁷.



One such sculpture dating to the 1st century AD caused quite a stir in the Victorian community. The Pompeian sculpture of Pan having sexual intercourse with a goat touched very deeply on the topic of bestiality. The intention of the Romans and Roman sexuality was to create an amusing sculpture that was admirable for its wit and skill, and it was most likely displayed in full public view. The irony behind the attitudes of the Victorians towards this particular piece of art is the fact that undeniably racy subjects engulfed in a heat of passion were just an example of how unlikely it was that this act could have happened. The fact of the matter is that modern individuals, or more specifically modern American cultures, believe that all thoughts pertaining to sex or sexual acts are inappropriate. Nudity is taboo and it is taught very early on that one’s body should only be used in a biological context and not for display, especially in sexually explicit images. These images go even further when the subject of those images is children and nudity. Showing a child in this form is considered as terribly offensive but the pictures make an impact. American culture does not like to admit to the impact of sexual imagery, but every time a conversation is started about pornography, it sparks an intense reaction, which continues to prove the power of sexuality.

The 1864 edition of Webster's dictionary defined pornography as "licentious painting employed to decorate the walls of rooms sacred to bacchanalian orgies, examples of which exist in Pompeii”⁴. These ideas of pornography were not so much the reflection of everyday Roman life but a way to show how sex was acceptable. No matter the amount of people who engaged in the activity or the object of those pleasures, sex was always conveyed as both a pleasurable and humorous act. This is certainly the reason why we see so many phalluses in Pompeii. Not only was the phallus a symbol of fertility, but also it was used in the form of an icon, its main purpose being to ward off evil. Today, the image of a phallus is completely taboo. The erect or semi-erect penis continues to be considered utterly unacceptable in any form of media other than pornography while female nudity in various forms is rapidly becoming acceptable even in media⁶ . The people of Pompeii displayed and revered the phallus and were not ashamed of its meaning, because the meaning was never to be perceived as only a sexual object. In the age of “size does matter”, many often prefer a larger penis. Was this the case for Pompeians? Hardly. In Pompeii, a smaller penis was considered more attractive. A larger penis, like the one we see on Priapus, was usually found on an individual with characteristics unusual to the Roman ideal, which was amusing and worthy of a good laugh. It was never meant to cause distaste, but it demonstrates how the Pompeians were able to laugh at themselves and not take things, such as the size of ones manhood, too seriously.

Robinson described the Pompeian’s ideas about the size and meaning behind the phallic symbol:

Laughter was one way to dispel the anguish of the evil eye. Humorous, erotic art displayed around town and in your household was one way to employ the protection of laughter, and was probably the reason behind its prevalence in Pompeii. Protection against the evil eye could also be found in the many images of the phallus commonly depicted in Roman art. These phallic images range from unobtrusive stone reliefs carved into paved walkways to winged and belled hanging phalluses. Power, status, and good fortune were expressed in terms of the phallus. Hence the presence of phallic imagery in almost unimaginable varieties all around the town . . . . There are phalluses greeting you in doorways, phalluses above bread ovens, phalluses carved into the surface of the street and plenty more phalluses with bells on-and wings⁶ .

There are several examples around every turn in Pompeii displaying the phallus, the most notable depiction, considered to be the most obscene, is located on a life-sized fresco in a doorway into the House of the Vettii. The god Priapus holds a set of scales that weighs his phallus while he looks outward, brazenly meeting the eyes of all who pass by. If you dare walk past him or even catch a glimpse at the relative size of his not insignificant maleness, you cannot help but be impressed. This portrayal would often spark laughter to the Romans, and mere shock to the Victorians, but the meaning is so much more significant. Priapus was thought to bring luck and plentiful harvests in the garden and the bedroom. He was also a protector of the flocks and the bees and he protected people from harm and evil. As with any phallic culture, anxieties were probably created as men tried to keep up with the strength society expected of them. Mary Beard explores how these sexual anxieties manifested themselves in homophobia, “In fact, many of the insults that scholars have sometimes taken as signs of Roman disapproval of homosexuality as such are directed only at those who played the passive part”¹.

Check out: The Fires of Vesuvius: Pompeii Lost and Found

Continue Reading..................

One’s first impression of Pompeii upon arrival is mostly likely embarrassment. Perhaps your heart starts racing or the images of well-endowed males throws you into doubt about your own manhood. The streets of Pompeii are a clear detour from the 20th century ideas of standards and moralities, and for the most part, the erotic art and images of Pompeii have, since its rediscovery, caused both outrage and appreciation. It is important to remember, however, that the Pompeian artifacts are valuable since they provide a source of information, and the knowledge from that information requires dissemination. These artifacts might just hold a key to understanding not only the Pompeian citizens, but also ourselves. Therefore the archaeological artifacts need to be interpreted by someone besides an archaeologist or historian in order for their true importance to be realized. Even before the world stood still in Pompeii in AD 79, the inhabitants were using these objects routinely. There was not a person alive that did not have access to them, yet when the first obscene artifacts were finally unearthed, people recognized a collision of worlds. In order to truly understand these ancient relics, one had to dive into the world of Roman sexuality to understand why they were preserved.

It is easy to imagine a Victorian digger discarding an object considered obscene in their circle. However, thankfully they realized that these items could never be destroyed. Had they been of recent manufacture, this would have been the obvious expedient; but any relic of the ancient world possessed, merely thanks to its survival, a value that superseded the nature of the relic itself. The relics of Pompeii had no rivals, no copies, and their likeness could not be found in any surrounding areas. This added value accrued principally to two classes of relics, the trivial and the obscene. Though both kinds had presumably been distributed throughout the Roman Empire, trivial things had mostly vanished in centuries of neglect, while obscene ones had succumbed to the zealous progress of Christianity. When it came to obscene objects, the more obscene an object was, the more likely it would have been destroyed anywhere but at Pompeii. Thus Pompeian preservation became a necessary evil⁴.

Depending on their inclinations, early critics condemned the one as immoral or the other as prudish, but all agreed that the ancient system of organizing Pompeii’s images would never do in modern times. A new taxonomic classification system was born out of Pompeii's priceless obscenities. They were to be systematically named and placed, and the final name chosen for them was "pornography," and they were housed in the Secret Museum. No one was ever allowed access to the Secret Museums’ indelicate collection, except for the archaeologists, who created one of the first pornographic experiences, in which sexually explicit portrayals of Roman sexuality were separated from all social contexts.

The Secret Museum, or the “secret chamber”, as many refer to it, is located in the Naples National Archaeological Museum, Naples, Italy, and contains some of the most erotic and unadulterated archaeological finds from Pompeii, too explicit and unsuitable for the general public. Most of what the public is allowed to see today was locked up in the beginning of the 19th century because it did not fit into the taxonomic classification of erotic. Instead, these pornographic materials were essentially locked behind a brick wall. The museum was temporally opened in the 60’s when free love laid a foundation for acceptable promiscuity, and then it was closed until 2000. Today it is open to the public. When you buy your ticket to the museum you have to ask about the secret chamber. You will then be assigned a visitation time, which is usually only 45 minutes. All tours are free and guided by someone who speaks your language but who is not necessarily knowledgeable about the artifacts.




The artifacts that are housed in the Secret Museum derived their characteristics from ritual and human nature, found to be open subjects in Pompeii. One such scene may have evolved from a location owned by Emperor Nero’s second wife, Poppaea Sabina. Poppaea owned a villa there, in which a large pool was constructed, and while her husband was away she indulged in orgies with females and males of all ages. The villa was discovered during excavations carried out by Francesco La Vega in the eighteenth century, however the swimming pool, which measures 60 by 15 meter, can only be imagined by the existence of some foundational walls, unearthed during the 1970s. This meeting place brought about a party that represented the many Bacchanalian Scenes displayed in the Secret Museum.

The abundant libations drunk in honor of the gods and the frenzy of the rituals freed the participants from moral restraint, and the ceremonies took on a licentious character². These ceremonies of lust grew even more uncontrolled and lewd, but at the time of the Imperial period, and during the time of Christ and the early Christians, this behavior was seen as acceptable. Grant explores the modern views of sexual orgies and what exactly changed as far as acceptance of ritual, “Christian views on sex would definitely not support such iconography (and define it as the “worst” kind of evil), but Christians who chronologically lived closer to Christ did, and these were the Christians who emanated into the Catholic Church. So, something “changed.”²

If we think about this logically it is clear that Church leaders today would never admit than Christ allowed sexual orgies, but they would admit that the Early Church in Rome, and especially in Pompeii, did. When Christ began to teach his word and promote a life of servitude and morality instead of debauchery, supposedly he spoke against sexual orgies. Regardless of what initially changed in the church to dissolve these immortal ideas of what was acceptable in the bedroom or out in the open, we still have relics in the Secret Museum to prove that at one time sex was celebrated.

Not every relic in the Secret Museum is grounded in sexual indiscretions. At some point the artifacts started to reflect different ideas about gender. A ritual basin housed in the museum is a prime example of this notion. The basin is made of multiple layers of metal (bronze, copper, or sometimes tin). Archaeologists described this large ritual basin, or lebes, from Pompeii, as a representation of "Satyr and Nymph". The nymph has evident, even if a small, male genitalia, therefore the most likely sex of this individual is a hermaphrodite or more probably an adolescent male. This was hardly a sexually explicit piece; rather it was a representation of changing attitudes towards gender. Any artifacts depicting mixed sexual orientation, however, were always placed behind closed doors when they were first discovered. This was not a subject that modern individuals were ready to face, but nonetheless, in keeping with the tradition of preserving distinctive sexual relics, the basin found its home in the Secret Museum.

© Sacred Texts

Several more fascinating statues were discovered at Pompeii, many in great number, most notable is the Drillopota. The Drillopota was a vessel, or obscene vase, used by the ancients to drink libations. Most undoubtedly they were used in honor of Venus, or perhaps Bacchus. Many of the vases depict men of little stature with a shaved head, shaved in fact to make them appear more ridiculous. The arms would sometimes hold tablets, which the children used at school. Some of these Drillopota are shown wearing a golden bulla around their necks, which distinguished the sons of the nobles and senators. The origin of this distinction dates from Tarquin the Elder, who awarded this mark of honor to his son for having conquered his opponent in single combat. The bulla could be opened at pleasure and was used to keep talismans in³.

Another artifact housed in the Secret Museum is a Tripod with Ithyphallic Young Pans holding up a lebes, or basin, and it is made entirety out of bronze and stands 90 centimeters high. The tripod is a pristine example of Hellenistic art. The overt pornographic nature of these young pans with their phalluses in plain view was the main reason this object was never displayed to the public. The tripod is significant because it does represent a triad of three youths. In Roman history, we see the use of a triad with Caligula’s sisters on a silver sestertius representing Agrippina as Securitas, Drusilla as Concordia, and Julia as Fortuna ⁸. This trinity of deities is not only associated with the number three, but it is common knowledge throughout folklore; the number three has a long history of mythical associations. Therefore the classification of the Tripod with Ithyphallic Young Pans is more so ritually based than sexual in nature.

In closing, there are several more explicitly sexualized examples of Pompeian life in the Secret Museum including but not limited to erotic art and bas reliefs. Many of the bas-reliefs and paintings contained within the walls of the Secret Chamber offer no explanation as to their representations. The limits of pornographic explanation allow visitors to garner their own opinions about the nature of the art. One’s perception of sexual imagery is dependent on how that individual was socialized to perceive Roman sexuality. In today’s modern culture, sex and gender are not subjects perceived to be outside the realm of a person’s innate sexual nature. Roman sexuality was on display in the public realm and domestic spaces as well as a prominent part of Roman art, folk culture, superstitions, and humor. While the eruption of Mount Vesuvius may have destroyed this sophisticated Greco Roman town, it did not destroy the history. Pompeii not only provides us an eye opening and revolutionizing approach to gender studies in the ancient world, but also it tells us about our own human nature.

I wanted to take the time to thank the publishers for the recent mention of this article in their books. "Pompeii: Erotic Art and Roman Sexuality" was cited in Pornography and The Criminal Justice System, by Carmen M. Cusack, and The Roman Gaze: Vision, Power, and the Body (Arethusa Books) by David Frederick.


Also check out:

• The Downfall of Pompeii Board Game
• The Bulgarian Pompeii
• Pompeii: Back From the Dead
• Eroticism, Eros, and Sex in Pompeii (Documentary)
• Doctor Who - Fires of Pompeii Gift Set

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Works Cited

1. Beard, Mary. Pompeii: The Life of a Roman Town. London: Profile Books, 2008.
2. Grant, Michael. Eros in Pompeii-The Secret Rooms of the National Museum of Naples. New York: William Morrow & Company, Inc, 1975.
3. Hare, John B. Sacred Texts, "Drillopota." Accessed February 11, 2012. http://www.sacred-texts.com/sex/rmn/rmn12.htm.
4. Kendrick, Walter. The Secret Museum: Pornography in Modern Culture. London: University of California Press, Ltd, 1987.
5. Loth, David. The Erotic in Literature: a historical survey of pornography as delightful as it is indiscreet. New York: Dorset Press, 1994.
6. Robinson, Sarah L. "Defining Pornography." Social Sciences Journal. 10. no. 1 : 1-8.
7. Rodley, Chris, Milgrom, Marilyn, Williams, Linda, and Camille Paglia. "Pornography – The Secret History of Civilisation." Koch Vision. 2000. DVD.
8. Wood, Susan E. "Diva Drusilla Panthea and the Sisters of Caligula." American Journal of Archaeology. 99. no. 3 (1995).

Photos

• Mary Harrsch
• Wikipedia
• The Golden Rule
• The Naples Archaeological Museum
• scruff monkey (flickr.com/photos/cathalm/)

Eroticism, Eros, and Sex in Pompeii

Imagine, my first video making experience in IMovie is centered around erotic art in Pompeii. I created the project for a Sex and Antiquity class and my goal was to share a side to Pompeii that many people mention in passing, but very few like to talk about the details openly.

This mini documentary is a culmination of sexual artifacts kept in the secret room in the Naples National Archaeological Museum, as well as an explanation of eros and ancient sexual practices.



Warning: This movie contains explicit sexual materials and artifacts.

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Credits

Music

Mary Gunderson

Photos

Mary Harrsch
Wikipedia
The Golden Rule
The Naples Archaeological Museum
scruff monkey (flickr.com/photos/cathalm/)

Documentation

Sacred Texts
Colonel Fanin. The Secret Erotic Paintings: Pictures and Descriptions of Classical Erotic

Pompeii: Back From the Dead

For those of you interested in Classical Archaeology and the history of the Pompeii destruction, the documentary Pompeii: Back From the Dead created by Discovery Channel presents the eruption of Mount Vesuvius as never before, including the massive earthquake which preceded it. It always fascinated me, learning about Pompeii in history classes, why the people ignored the warning signs and chose to stay.

Pompeii is an archaeological site, which was destroyed around 79 AD by Mount Vesuvius. It was a town full of aristocrats and artisans. Artisans who were previously slaves, who gained freedom in Pompeii and became wealthy merchants. Pompeii was a place for the super-rich! The Palm Beach of the Roman world.

It was a place known for sexual indiscretions, what with the vast array of sex and bath houses. Emperor Nero's second wife, Poppaea Sabina, frequented Pompeii. She owned a villa there, in which a large pool was constructed, where she indulged with females and males of all ages. Pompeii wasn't just about "sexual antics", however. Pompeii had an impressive infrastructure consisting of roads and underground waterways. Yet, all of that meant nothing, when it disappeared during Mount Vesuvius' eruption.

When archaeologists discovered the city during the 19th century, they found citizens locked in time, under a blanket of ash. Their flesh completely gone. Plaster casts were created to preserve what was left, yet the creation of those casts destroyed every bit of 1st century skeletal evidence.

University of Texas Professor and Historian John Clark explains that there were several events leading up to the eruption of Mount Vesuvius that many are unaware of. Furthermore, the skeletons discovered in the cellar, where a group of citizens, including some very wealthy aristocrats, sought refuge from the pumice, gas and the thousands of tons of volcanic ash emanating from Mount Vesuvius, is now allowing archaeologists and scientists to unlock genetic secrets.


Don Wildman takes viewers on an archaeological adventure and Dr. Fabian Kanz, Forensic Anthropologist from the Medical University of Vienna, investigates the new skeletal evidence, which has allowed us to understand Pompeii's' most intimate secrets.

If you'd like to watch Pompeii: Back From the Dead, it's available on Netflix for streaming, or you can purchase it here-->Pompeii: Back From the Dead

DVD Release Date: October 11, 2011
Run Time: 43 minutes