22 Archaeology Books every Future Archaeologist should be reading

Even before I began my education in anthropology and archaeology, I had read several books on theory and method, as well as researched diverse cultures and multiple religions. However, once I started taking classes, the required course books became some of the most impactful resources and tools I had at my disposable. Granted, Indiana Jones would say "If you want to be a good archaeologist, you have to get out of the library". However, what if you also love the research aspect of this discipline, which does require you to sift through hundreds of good and bad books, trying to decipher what's fact and what's opinion?

These books, all of which I have either read cover to cover for classes, or read out of pure enjoyment, all have something to offer archaeology students looking to get into the field.  The book that changed my focus from archaeology to anthropology is the first in my list.  The professor that taught from this book attend University of Pennsylvania and had a curious and sometimes confusing way of approaching the class, and yet, I learned more from his class than any other during my graduate work.

22 Archaeology Books every Future Archaeologist should be reading

Visions of Culture: An Introduction to Anthropological Theories and Theorists – I've read this book from cover to cover several times. This book made me love Herbert Spencer, and even today, I still reference the social organism every chance I get. This new edition of Jerry D. Moore's Visions of Culture presents introductory anthropology students with a brief, readable, and balanced treatment of theoretical developments in the field. (Ancient Digger's Top Pick, and favorite anthropology book

Archaeological Theory: An Introduction – Archaeological Theory, 2nd Edition is the most current and comprehensive introduction to the field available. Thoroughly revised and updated, this engaging text offers students an ideal entry point to the major concepts and ongoing debates in archaeological research.

The Bible Unearthed: Archaeology's New Vision of Ancient Israel and the Origin of Its Sacred Texts
– In this groundbreaking work that sets apart fact and legend, authors Finkelstein and Silberman use significant archeological discoveries to provide historical information about biblical Israel and its neighbors.

Patterns in Prehistory: Humankind's First Three Million Years, 5th Edition (Casebooks in Criticism)
– Patterns in Prehistory, Fifth Edition, is a comprehensive and engaging survey of humanity's past three million years ago. It brings together theories and archaeological examples to pose questions about who we are and the means by which humanity evolved into what it is today. Ideal for introductory courses in world prehistory and origins of complex societies, Patterns in Prehistory, Fifth Edition, offers a unified and thematic approach to the four great transformations--or patterns--that characterize humanity's past: the origins and evolution of culture; the origins of modern humans and human behaviors; the origins of agriculture; and the origins of complex societies, civilizations, and pre-industrial states. Integrating theoretical approaches with archaeological data from the Middle East, Mesoamerica, North and South America, Egypt, China, the Indus Valley, and temperate Europe, Patterns in Prehistory, Fifth Edition, reveals how archaeologists decipher the past. It demonstrates how theory and method are combined to derive interpretations and also considers how interpretations evolve as a result of accumulating data, technological advances in recording and analyzing data sets, and newer theoretical perspectives.

Friend by Day, Enemy by Night: Organized Vengeance in a Kohistani Community (Case Studies in Cultural Anthropology) – This particular discussion is about the road built to the isolated villages and how it changed the community. Interestingly, you would think with the addition of a new info structure, organized vengeance would fade to some sort of degree. This was not case, as the first highway system actually promoted it, linking villagers with a more modern economy and a new political system. Therefore, this new highway triggered sociocultural transitions in Thull that ultimately resulted in Dushmani.

Life in the Pueblo: Understanding the Past Through Archaeology – Within the effective format of a nontechnical case study, Life in the Pueblo provides an understanding of the basic methodologies in modern archaeology, including the formation of archaeological sites, dating, the role of ethnographic analogy, and analytic techniques like trace element sourcing, use-wear analysis, and carbon isotope determinations of diet. The archaeological interpretations are put into perspective by the inclusion of Hope and Zuni history and myth and the liberal use of ethnographic information from the Hopi and other historic and modern puebloan groups. A short fictional reconstruction of life in the village invites the reader to reflect on the fact that the past was a period occupied by people, not just potsherds. Based on four years of excavation and ten years of analysis of a puebloan site near modern Flagstaff, Arizona, this profusely illustrated volume captures readers' interest and imagination as it explores some of the fundamental principles of archaeology.

Native Religions of North America: The Power of Visions and Fertility – The diversity and continuities in American Indian spirituality! The religious life of Native Americans is a panorama featuring an immense diversity of beliefs, ceremonies, and ways of life. Native Religions of North America reflects this rich tradition as it admirably distills a complex subject in a practical and engaging manner. Through concise expression and careful choice of examples, Hultkrantz identifies the diversity and continuities in American Indian spirituality. He introduces the hunters and farmers, the past and present, and the physical contexts and the sublime speculations of tribal religions, even the subtle shades of meaning within an Indian community.

Ancient Egypt: An Introduction – This book provides an introduction to one of the greatest civilization of all time - ancient Egypt. Beginning with a geographical overview that explains the development of Egyptian belief systems as well as its subsequent political development, it examines methodology, the history of the discipline of Egyptology, religion, social organization, urban and rural life, and death. It also includes a section on how people of all ranks lived. Lavishly illustrated, with many unusual photographs of rarely seen sites that are seldom illustrated, this volume is suitable for use in introductory-level courses on ancient Egypt. It offers a variety of student-friendly features, including a glossary, a bibliography, and a list of sources for those who wish to further their interest in ancient Egypt.

Sexuality in Greek and Roman Culture – "Sexuality in Greek and Roman Culture" is the first comprehensive survey of ancient Greek and Roman sexuality. This title covers a wide range of subjects, including Greek pederasty and the symposium, ancient prostitution, representations of women in Greece and Rome, and the public regulation of sexual behavior. It introduces readers to the bitter theoretical debates that have been fought about gender and sexuality in the classical world. The material is ordered chronologically. This title draws parallels between ancient sexual ideology and contemporary culture. It also draws on literary, artistic and archaeological sources, as well as secondary scholarly sources. It was theoretically sophisticated and skillfully argued, yet accessible.

Lives in Ruins: Archaeologists and the Seductive Lure of Human Rubble – History is recorded in many ways. According to author James Deetz, the past can be seen most fully by studying the small things so often forgotten. Objects such as doorways, gravestones, musical instruments, and even shards of pottery fill in the cracks between large historical events and depict the intricacies of daily life. In his completely revised and expanded edition of In Small Things Forgotten, Deetz has added new sections that more fully acknowledge the presence of women and African Americans in Colonial America. New interpretations of archaeological finds detail how minorities influenced and were affected by the development of the Anglo-American tradition

In Small Things Forgotten: An Archaeology of Early American Life – History is recorded in many ways. According to author James Deetz, the past can be seen most fully by studying the small things so often forgotten. Objects such as doorways, gravestones, musical instruments, and even shards of pottery fill in the cracks between large historical events and depict the intricacies of daily life. In his completely revised and expanded edition of In Small Things Forgotten, Deetz has added new sections that more fully acknowledge the presence of women and African Americans in Colonial America.

A History of Ancient Egypt (Blackwell History of the Ancient World) –Outlining the major political and cultural events, A History of Ancient Egypt is an authoritative and accessible introduction to this fascinating ancient culture. An accessible chronological narrative that draws on a range of historical sources. Offers an up-to-date survey of ancient Egypt’s history from its origins to its domination by the Roman Empire. Considers social and economic life and the rich culture of ancient Egypt
Places Egypt’s history within its regional context, detailing interactions with Asia and Africa. Engages students with various perspectives on a range of critical issues with the Key Debate section included in each chapter. Makes the latest discoveries and scholarship accessible to a wide audience

The Quest for the Historical Israel: Debating Archaeology and the History of Early Israel (Archaeology and Biblical Studies) – Three decades of dialogue, discussion, and debate within the interrelated disciplines of Syro-Palestinian archaeology, ancient Israelite history, and Hebrew Bible over the question of the relevance of the biblical account for reconstructing early Israels history have created the need for a balanced articulation of the issues and their prospective resolutions. This book brings together for the first time and under one cover, a currently emerging centrist paradigm as articulated by two leading figures in the fields of early Israelite archaeology and history. Although Finkelstein and Mazar advocate distinct views of early Israels history, they nevertheless share the position that the material cultural data, the biblical traditions, and the ancient Near Eastern written sources are all significantly relevant to the historical quest for Iron Age Israel. The results of their research are featured in accessible, parallel syntheses of the historical reconstruction of early Israel that facilitate comparison and contrast of their respective interpretations.

Archaeology 6th Edition – This text pairs two of archaeology's most recognized names: Robert L. Kelly and David Hurst Thomas, who together have over seventy years of experience leading excavations. The sixth edition of ARCHAEOLOGY reflects the most recent research and changes in the field, while covering core concepts in an exceptionally student-friendly fashion using personalized examples and high-interest topics. This edition continues a tradition of combining academic rigor with an engaging writing style that has made ARCHAEOLOGY one of the most well-respected and best-selling texts in the discipline. A rich array of supplemental resources is available for purchase, including a book companion website, as well as a CD-ROM developed by the authors entitled DOING FIELDWORK: ARCHAEOLOGICAL DEMONSTRATIONS.

1177 B.C.: The Year Civilization Collapsed (Turning Points in Ancient History) – A compelling combination of narrative and the latest scholarship, 1177 B.C. sheds new light on the complex ties that gave rise to, and ultimately destroyed, the flourishing civilizations of the Late Bronze Age—and that set the stage for the emergence of classical Greece.

Archaeology Essentials: Theories, Methods, and Practice – This new brief version of the best-selling textbook was carefully rewritten to provide a readable and compact introduction to archaeology for those new to the field. No other book of this length can match its range of essential information and explanation. The vocabulary and the use of technical terms have been carefully reviewed. The amount of detail has been considerably reduced, and coverage of difficult or cutting-edge topics is made more accessible for students in courses that treat such subjects briefly. In particular, the coverage of archaeological theory and science has been substantially rewritten to provide a convenient overview without overwhelming the student. 220 black-and-white illustrations

The Complete Pompeii (The Complete Series) – With its lavish illustrations, covering monumental architecture and inscriptions, shops, graffiti, wall-paintings, and mosaics, plus its numerous box features ranging from theatrical entertainments to water supply, The Complete Pompeii is the ultimate resource and inspirational guide to this iconic ancient town.

The Last Days of the Incas–The epic story of the fall of the Inca Empire to Spanish conquistador Francisco Pizarro in the aftermath of a bloody civil war, and the recent discovery of the lost guerrilla capital of the Incas, Vilcabamba, by three American explorers.

Visions of Culture: An Introduction to Anthropological Theories and Theorists – I've read this book from cover to cover several times. This book made me love Herbert Spencer, and even today, I still reference the social organism every chance I get. This new edition of Jerry D. Moore's Visions of Culture presents introductory anthropology students with a brief, readable, and balanced treatment of theoretical developments in the field. (Ancient Digger's Top Pick, and favorite anthropology book

Archaeology for Dummies – This is the perfect archaeology for beginners book. Archaeology For Dummies offers a fascinating look at this intriguing field, taking readers on-site and revealing little-known details about some of the world's greatest archaeological discoveries. It explores how archaeology attempts to uncover the lives of our ancestors, examining historical dig sites around the world and explaining theories about ancient human societies. The guide also offers helpful information for readers who want to participate in an excavation themselves, as well as tips for getting the best training and where to look for jobs.

The Archaeology Book (Wonders of Creation) – Developed with three educational levels in mind, The Archaeology Book takes you on an exciting exploration of history and ancient cultures. You'll learn both the techniques of the archaeologist and the accounts of some of the richest discoveries of the Middle East that demonstrate the accuracy and historicity of the Bible.

Archaeology: Theories, Methods, and Practice (Sixth Edition) – Since its first edition, Renfrew and Bahn’s Archaeology: Theories, Methods, and Practice has been the leading academic source on what archaeologists do and how they do it. This indispensable resource is a comprehensive introduction to archaeology’s theories, methods, and practices in the field, the laboratory, and the library.

Gods, Graves & Scholars: The Story of Archaeology – C.W. Ceram visualized archeology as a wonderful combination of high adventure, romance, history and scholarship, and this book, a chronicle of man's search for his past, reads like a dramatic narrative. We travel with Heinrich Schliemann as, defying the ridicule of the learned world, he actually unearths the remains of the ancient city of Troy. We share the excitement of Lord Carnarvon and Howard Carter as they first glimpse the riches of Tutankhamen's tomb, of George Smith when he found the ancient clay tablets that contained the records of the Biblical Flood. We rediscover the ruined splendors of the Hanging Gardens of Babylon, one of the wonders of the ancient wold; of Chichen Itza, the abandoned pyramids of the Maya: and the legendary Labyrinth of tile Minotaur in Crete. Here is much of the history of civilization and the stories of the men who rediscovered it.

History 101: Herodotus’ Account of Greek Victory Over The Persians

Greek culture, society, and politics were a measure of Greek identity. The idea was, essentially, that Herodotus wrote his historical account from the view of a Greek citizen, therefore his biased account embraced the idea that all non-Greeks were inferior. Herodotus’ concept of the Greek’s view of Persians served as a model from which the Greeks could assess their own society. Greek victory over the Persians symbolized the bravery and the supremacy of Greek society over the sand dwelling Persians, therefore reinforcing their concept of cultural identity and political excellence. Herodotus’ depiction of the Greeks as a community of peoples, clinging to their identity, culture, and politics created on the basis of equality, was the perspective we are presented in order to understand the Persian defeat by a more simple minded people.

The Persian Wars, according to the Histories of Herodotus, were significant to the Greeks because they preserved Greek identity. In Book One of Herodotus, a Lydian named Sandanis gives Croesus advice, prior to his campaign into Cappadocia where he would destroy Cyrus. Sandanis explains that these men who where leather don’t eat what they want, but what they have. They don’t use wine, but are water drinkers, and they don’t have exotic fruits to nibble on such as figs . Essentially, the Persians are seen as having nothing, so defeating them in battle will not result in any spoils. This contrived image of Greek superiority reigns throughout Herodotus, and when the Persians were defeated, the image of what a non-Greek represented, was destroyed.

It’s true. The Persians were poor prior to the Lydian invasion, so in affect, Herodotus’ view of their efforts against the Greeks may have been different if their economic status had not changed. Since Persian wealth and luxury were used as a characterization of the barbarians, it’s of no consequence that Herodotus viewed their acquisition of an empire, along with the immense wealth and foreign luxury that this brought them, as an erosion of their former toughness and it made them soft. “Just as Cyrus had been defeated by the Massagetae and Darius by the Scythians, the Persians were once again worsted by a hardier and simpler people.”

In the case of warfare, Grecian hoplites were armed with long spears fitted with iron tips, which were significantly longer than Persian spears, and a sword. The heavy armour consisted of a bronze breastplate, helmet with plume and opening in the center, and a shield measuring one meter across. Essentially the longer spears made them superior in hand-to-hand combat. Yet, this was the first time the Athenians warriors encountered the Median garb and the men who wore it. Herodotus says that the Persians borrowed the attire of the Medes because it was more beautiful than their own . Later on Aristagoras of Miletus ridicules men who fought
'wearing trousers and turbans'; and at Plataea it is their clothing that causes them the most harm and which the Greeks totally disregard as booty once the battle is over . Even considering the Persian’s fanciful garments, confidence in numbers, and their belief that most inferior peoples are the ones who live the farthest from them, they still essentially failed at Marathon.

The historical account of the Battle of Marathon may be entirely different than what Herodotus had proposed. Since the Greeks relied heavily on the opinions of the gods, it’s of no surprise that Herodotus hints at their involvement, or rather their assistance, at defeating the Persians. Herodotus states “if the gods be but impartial, that either the enemy shall not attack you at all, or, if they do, shall be greatly to their own detriment.” Interestingly enough, after this statement, Philippedes has a vision. Philippedes has met Pan on Mount Parthenium where Pan shouts to him, “Why do you pay no heed to Pan, who is a good friend to the people of Athens, has been many time serviceable to you, and will be so again?” Till then the Greeks were terrified even to hear the names of the Medes, but Philippedes vision may have prevented panic among the Athenians, allowing them to move forward through the sea of Persian arrows at Marathon.

Herodotus’ criterion of a historical cause of the Greek’s triumph during the Persian wars is primarily political. Herodotus’ culturally biased depiction of Persian politics reinforces the Greek’s lack of knowledge of Persian society. What they did know was that a non-Greek system of politics, or a non-democratic government, was far inferior to their political organization. Herodotus explains that the monarchy, an ideal championed by Persian powers, and represented by Darius, was by far less predominate than Greek democracy . In Herodotus, democracy represented freedom and a monarchy represented slavery. The idea put forth by Herodotus was that when all of the democratic city-states united against invaders from a Persian monarchy, they would prevail.

Finally, according to Herodotus the Greeks had more motivation. Flowers explains that Herodotus was not entirely uninformed of the biases of his own culture, and even if he were the plot line demanded that the Greeks be the defenders of liberty against Persian aggression. This essentially explains why the fault, or lines of historical causation, runs though the Histories of Herodotus . Persian kings may have sought retribution for the capture of Sardis by Athenian and Eretrian forces and the Greeks were determined to defend their homeland because they were inherently tied to equality. Regardless of motivations of both sides, Herodotus attributed the Greek victory to virtue. Their meek and unpretentious existence was entirely relative to the Persians, who were dripping in riches. In Book 8.26 of Herodorus’ Histories, the Arcadians explain that the Greeks are at present celebrating the Olympic games. Tigranes burst out with the words words, “What, Mardonius! What sort of men have you led us to fight against, who contend, not for money, put purely for the sake of excellence?” Clearly, it was part of the Greek’s strength, Herodotus believed, to be victorious in battle because of their wisdom, laws and customs. Ideas in which were foreign in the eyes of the Persians, concerned with the spoils of war and their own personal ideals of wealth.

Herodotus, often called the “Father of History”, appears to have drawn on the Ionian tradition of story telling to write the action filled trials of the Persian wars. The stories contain folk like stories of action and adventure and war and politics, but even so, there’s a substantial amount of facts relating to geography, anthropology and history, all compiled by Herodotus in an entertaining style and format . The Greek cities, according to Herodotus, refused to bow down before the barbarians. The Greeks were skillful in battle and resourceful and they utilized their relationship with the gods to defeat the enemy. One might say the armies of Persia and Greek were equally matched and either side could have prevailed, but Herodotus clearly represents the Greeks as undefeatable.

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Aristocratic Life and Values in Homeric Greece
The Ionian Cultural Revolution

Resources

1. Grene, David. Herodotus: The Histories. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1987.
2. Flowers, Michael. Herodotus and Persia. The Cambridge Companion to Herodotus. Edited by Carolyn Dewald and John Marincola . New York: Cambridge University Press, 2006.
3. Murray, Oswyn, J.Boardman, J.Griffin. The Oxford History of the Classical World. New York: Oxford University Press, 1986.

Greek Week: Pericles 101

Pericles was born in 496 B.C, in Demon Kholagros. His father, Xanthippos, was a famous politician. Pericles engaged in politics as early as 472 BC, at a young age. At that time, the city of Athens was poor and disorderly due to the effects of the Persian wars. Themistocles had gained great power after the wars and primarily as a result of the Battle of Salamis, but many Athenians were envious. Pericles decided to ally with Cimon, who hated Themistocles. In 463, Themistocles was successfully exiled with the aid of Cimon. Pericles was made strategos, and at this time, he noticed he could not over-run Cimon, so he started to study his opponent quite closely. Pericles learned that Cimon had committed criminal offenses. After a trial and a guilty verdict by the court, Cimon was exiled, making Pericles even stronger.

Pericles could now begin the rebuilding of Athens. Allied states under Pericles were promised protection if taxes were paid to Athens. This was the money used to rebuild the city. In a short time, Athens returned to her superpower status. Houses, temples, and streets were restored to their former glory and houses were made affordable to the poor. Perhaps one of Pericles’ most notable contributions was the Acropolis of Athens, which was rebuilt using 20,000 workers, and was designed by Fidas, with a statue of Athena inside. He supported the schools of Socrates and Plato, and playwrights including Sophocles and Euripidas, allowing intellectual and artistic life to flourish. He extended democracy. Power was now in the hands of the people: male citizens voted in the assemblies and served as jurors in courts. Even lower class citizens in the Age of Pericles were eligible for public offices . Athens during Pericles was seen as the “birthplace of western democracy” .

Politicians grew jealous of Pericles and managed to kills some of his friends and even made accusations about his personal life. As Pericles dealt with his personal, internal issues, a war was brewing with Sparta. The Spartan army moved towards Athens in 433, but Pericles defeated them. Pericles policy holds true. Athens power doesn’t change after the war. In 430, however, a plague had infected the city of Athens, and Pericles’ sons and sisters died, along with Athenian citizens, who were not allowed to leave city. Greek politicians blamed Pericles for the plague and he was removed from his office. Pericles then dies in his 70’s of the plague in 429 B.C .

© Image via British Museum

Also check out:

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Aristocratic Life and Values in Homeric Greece

Homer’s idea of Greek aristocratic lifestyle has influenced the Western worldview of what we characterize as success and power. Diffusing ideas of grandeur, institutions, government and philosophy steered the aristocracy into a life of mentorship and glory and spoils in warfare. Kurke explains, “In a period when various factors cause a broader distribution of wealth and political influence, threatening the power monopoly of the elite, conscious forms of aristocratic display become more and more prominent in reaction” . In Homeric Greece and the lliad, the main themes that Homer highlights are personal honor and arête, transience of human life, pederasty, and society and politics.

Werner Jaeger explains arête as the “quintessence of early aristocratic education”, yet it was also characterized by the individual personification of one’s self. Am I the best (aristos)? The most handsome? The best warrior or public speaker? A noble's arête, in Homer, is specifically indicated by his skill and prowess as a soldier in war, and as an athlete in peace” . Yet, his over inclination to human perfection and self-fulfillment was most often the result of his prowess in leadership, which can’t be separated from arête. According to Homer, arête is expressed by a struggle or contest in war. Through a man’s willingness to fight, he will protect his family, preserving his own honor and that of his family, and thus preserves his reputation.

James McGlew explains that offspring of divine mortal relationships are always exceptional in arête. This statement is best embodied by the relationship of Achilles and Agamemnon in the lliad. Both men are proud and seek personal honor and excellence. Arête is expressed by those respecting their distinct reputation and importance, thus foregoing the wellbeing of their own forces . Only one, however, is of divine and mortal origin and it is he who seeks Kleos and Agamemnon who seeks timé. Arête was the driving force in Greek aristocratic society, which is why the theme of arête comes up several times in the lliad.

The lliad provides a universal lesson of all aristocratic warrior men. Spielvogel mentions one account of a commentator stating, “men will still come and go like the generations of leaves in the forest; that [man] will still be weak, and gods strong and calculable; that the quality of man matters more than his achievement” .

Does the quality of man really distinguish his achievements? In the lliad, we were introduced to Agamemnon, chief of the Achaean forces, who believes that he’s entitled to Briseis. This of course denies the Achaean Achilles his warrior prize, and thus, forces him to defend his claim over Briseis, rather than defuse the situation entirely. Spoils of war and the entitlement to these so-called prizes, are the very essence of timé. Yet, one wonders, with Achilles’ claim to an early heroic death, why he would even bother the humiliation, rather than acting of honor or duty. We see demonstrated the aristocratic warrior way, where a man puts his own interests ahead of that of his people, jeopardizing the war effort.

Although the transience of warrior life, especially for warrior aristocrats, was fleeting, they recognized that, or believed that they were, essentially immortal like their great gods. It was the responsibility of the elder men to educate the young, feeble-minded warrior men about life. The obstacle was that in Homeric Greece, texts such as the Odyssey and lliad were meant to represent the glories of war and the honor one might obtain by embarking on such a mission. Life wasn’t always about war, yet men lived as though it was. Thus, relationships formed to instruct the young men on matters of state, life, family, and war.

Homer said, “To have a great man for an intimate friend seems pleasant to those who have never tried it; those who have, fear it” . Greek male aristocracy had rites of passage much like men do today in fraternities, albeit in a stricter sense, pedastery was based upon close intimate relationships. These intimate, sometimes erotic, relationships didn’t define a Greek male’s personal lifestyle, yet they influenced their standing in the political arena with the older, more established and revered, Greek aristocratic males. There were no such things as ‘gay’ or ‘straight’ in ancient Greece. Your sexual orientation depended on how you had sex, with whom, and your social status. Therefore, gender roles during sex were fluid and were only characterized by the terms “penetrator” and “penetrated”.

The Marquis De Sade defended pedastery in his book Philosophy in the Bedroom, explaining that the act was misconstrued and falsely criticized. The Marquis states that, “The lawgivers of Greece would they have introduced it to their country if it was [dangerous]? Quite the contrary, they thought it necessary for a warrior people . It’s evident that erotic relationships between Greek Athenian men and adolescent boys were seen as completely natural and admirable. Sexual relations were a large part of the overall master/apprentice relationship. Like a practicum for young men of refinement to learn how to become respectable members of aristocratic society.

Society in Homeric Greece was largely based on agriculture, which the warrior aristocracy controlled. A large gulf separated the wealthy land owning aristocrats from the peasants who hardly embraced their existence. Hesiod, a poet and farmer, wrote a poem titled Works and Days scrutinizing the aristocrats for their obsession with pride and war and their treatment of the farmers and peasants. In the other hand, he explains that the gods punished injustice, and the way to success was work. “Famine and blight do not beset the just, who till their well-worked fields and feast. The earth supports them lavishly” . Consequently, many aristocrats worked the land along side their hired men and slaves, which makes Hesiod’s statement over justified. If both aristocrats and slaves worked the land, thus appeasing and pleasing the gods, then why would the earth not provide for them both?

“In the human realm, the guarantors of order and justice are the basileis. Thus they are the earthly counterparts of Zeus” . The king's responsibilities varied from state to state and, however they did have religious duties as well. The widespread designation of the title basileus for religious officials signals how great a reverence was still attached to the name; the Greek aristocrats felt a need to keep the very important religious sphere of polis existence linked to the ancestral champions of the demos. The Homeric tribal society during the Archaic was dwindling, yet some states, mostly of Dorian origin, kept the tradition alive. Consequently, in Argos, a dynasty of hereditary basileis retained authority into the seventh century, resisting the attempts of the aristocrats to establish oligarchic rule. One of them, Pheidon, using his position of traditional basileus as a springboard, managed to make himself into a tyrant with absolute powers . The Spartans maintained a tribal system for the longest time, which allowed for not one but two hereditary, life-long basileis.

Aristocratic Greeks controlled the city-states for generations utilizing an advisory board. “Membership was confined to the high offices of the state, or magistracies, to their own landholding class.” Offices, especially in the early polis, were restricted to the aristocrats considering their high rank and birthright. They claimed their powers to govern
were derived from the gods, therefore, they believed they were the most excellent and the best aristoi-and thus the government they headed in each state is known as an aristocracy, the rule of the best.

Aristocratic women in Homeric Greece were expected to pursue excellence. Displaying courage during times of war and intelligence in governing her household while her husband was away was seen as admirable. Aristocratic young females, most associated with Spartan society, often appeared nude in ritual ceremonies, thus exemplifying the desire for physical perfection. Women’s bodies could also be assessed for childbearing purposes. After all, aristocratic society thrived on New Greek citizens.

Young men from wealthy aristocratic families and of citizen rank also underwent training and education and were accompanied to private school by a paidagogas, an elderly and trusted slave who supervised and protected the boy. Whereas boys of lesser means pursued education for no more than three or four years, the rest continued for as many as ten years. Young Athenian boys played sport and exercised in the nude as physical training was also seen as education for the mind, and athletics assumed an increasingly important role as the boy approached manhood.

The Pantheon of gods the aristocrats claimed lineage from was a huge aspect of the way in which the landed aristocracy ruled and lived their lives. Homer presents deities in a way that deviated from the older gods who didn’t claim immortality and superpowers. For this reason, aristocrats in Homeric Greece never regarded gods, which could succumb to death or injury, as their greatest. “In Homer, the deities lead an existence paralleling in many ways that of the earthly nobles. Although the warrior nobles are supported or opposed at every turn by the heaven, they regard their relations with the gods as those between a lesser and greater order of beings” .

In essence Homeric Greece evolved out of one blind man’s interpretation of perfection. A land of Utopia, which Thomas Moore in the 16th century believed was attainable by adhering to godly standards of piousness and purity. While young women enjoyed the arts, dancing, and singing, warrior nobles were learning the art of war and leadership. Mentorship and personal honor. Homer is regarded as saying, “men grow tired of sleep, love, singing, and dancing sooner than war”. As we’ve seen throughout history, men like Henry the 5th, Henry the 8th and Alexander the Great, have all left a legacy of their successes in personal honor and war. Homeric Greece was very much the same. So we see that Homeric Greece, which slowly started to dwindle, or rather, was virtually non-existent in Classical Greece, was a foundation in which many warriors through the ages based their efforts. The foundation, I believe, was never really lost.

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Sources

1. Dandrow, Edward. Ancient Greece Class Notes, 2011.
2. Dunstan, William E. Ancient Greece. Orlando: Harcourt College Publishers, 2000.
3. Heinl, Robert Debs. Dictionary of Military and Naval Questions. Annapolis: United States Naval Institute, 1966.
4. Kurke, Leslie. "The Politics of in Archaic Greece." Classical Antiquity 11 (1992): 91-120.
5. McGlew,James F. Tyranny and Political Culture in Ancient Greece. Ithica: Cornell University Press, 1993.
6. Moskowitz, Michael. Reading Minds: guide to the cognitive neuroscience revolution. Great Britain: Karnac Books, 2010.
7. Percy III, William Armstrong. Pedastery and Pedagogy in Archaic Greece. Illinois: Board of Trustees University of illinois, 1996.
8. Pomeroy, Sarah B. Ancient Greece: a Political, Social, and Cultural History. New York: Oxford University Press, 1999.
9. Sansone, David. Ancient Greek Civilization. United Kingdom: Blackwell Publishing Ltd, 2004.
10. Spielvogel, Jackson J. Western Civilization. 7th Edition. Belmonst: Thomson Higher Education, 2009, 2006.

The Madara Rider of Bulgaria

The Madara Rider sits 246 feet above ground, on a cliff face in the Madara Plateau of northeastern Bulgaria. The relief is inaccessible, adding to its mystery. How were they able to create it?  Either way, the relief is extraordinary.

Including the inscription in Medieval Greek, the rider covers close to 1400 square feet on a vertical 328 foot cliff face. The horseman is depicted in a hunting scene, spearing a lion. The lion is being trampled by the horse and a dog is trailing behind the rider.

Read this article on the Madara Rider: The Mysterious Stone Horseman of Bulgaria

Monday Ground Up: The Cave of the Apocalypse

The Cave of the Apocalypse can be found on the rocky island of Patmos, deep within the monastery that surrounds it. Patmos is located north of the Greek Islands, off the southwest coast of Turkey. Many believe that St. John or John the Apostle as most people know him, lived here between Chora and Skala.

John the Apostle was exiled to Patmos in 95 CE and was there until 97 CE. It was said that he inhabited this cave where he dictated his Gospel and Apocalypse to Prochorus, his disciple. Prochorus later became Bishop of Nicomedia. The Apocalypse, along with its peculiar revelations, was the last book of the Bible to be written.

During the 10th century, the cave became enclosed by a Greek Orthodox monastery to guard its spiritual importance, and of course, to ensure its overall condition and protection. The Cave of the Apocalypse is now a center for Christian pilgrimages.

From an archaeological standpoint, there are indentations in the rock where John may have laid his head. These indentations are now the home of seven silver lights, one which hangs over where he slept. The entrance to the cave boasts an extraordinary mosaic depicting the visions John had seen while in the cave.

Evidence about the history of the Cave of Apocalypse is not, however, conclusive. It is a place that amasses a strong sense of spiritual worship and a feeling that some say is unshakable.

The Cave of the Apocalypse was recognized in 1999 as a UNESCO World Heritage site, and it remains one of the most historically important sites of the Christian world.

Photography and Video of the Cave of the Apocalypse

Picture Sources

Wikipedia

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Oldest Man-Made Structure Discovered in Greek Cave near Kalambaka

The structure is a stone wall that blocked two-thirds of the entrance to the Theopetra cave near Kalambaka on the north edge of the Thessalian plain. It was constructed 23,000 years ago, probably as a barrier to cold winds.

“An optical dating test, known as Optically Stimulated Luminescence, was applied on quartz grains nested within the stones. We dated four different samples from the sediment and soil materials, and all provided identical dates,” Nikolaos Zacharias, director of the laboratory of archaeometry at the University of Peloponnese, told Discovery News.

Read the entire story of the oldest man-made structure discovered on Discovery News

Monday Ground Up: Saint Demitrios and the Crusades

When I finally decided that may focus was going to be Medieval European Archaeology, I started diving into the subject. Of course as a you can see by the last editions, the Middle Ages have been my focus.

When I traveled today to the Greek Festival, I had every intention of sharing my experiences for the day. However, when I started to roam the church and study the paintings and depictions of Saint Demetrios, it sparked my interest, especially considering I wasn't looking for a connection between a Greek Saint and the crusades.



Saint Demetrios (Demetrius of Thessaloniki-(Greek: Άγιος Δημήτριος της Θεσσαλονίκης) was a revered Orthodox military saint and Christian martyr during the time of the crusades in the Middle Ages. Many scholars believe he was a member of the Roman Army and a patron of the crusades, along with Saint George.



His cult, created in Thessaloniki, was ever growing and open to external attacks from Slavs moving into the Balkans. It was his interventions during the crusades that led him to the title of a military martyr.

Myth has always surrounded Saint Demetrios as no relics were ever left behind after his death.

What were claimed to be his remains subsequently appeared in Thessaloniki, but even the local archbishop (John of Thessaloniki, 7th century) was publicly dismissive of their authenticity. These are now also kept in Hagios Demetrios. According to legend, these relics were ascertained to be genuine after they started emitting a perfumed scent of myrrh.

Brief Overview of the Crusades

The crusades were an attempt by the papacy to demonstrate their influence over European society. It was a war between the godly followers and the infidels. Due to developments in the Islamic and Byzantine world, this gave rise to the new European civilization to expand their borders. As a new dynasty emerged, the demand for knights was answered leading to the first crusades which were precipitated by various religious aspects and conflicts, and tempted warriors to fight for their religion and engage in their favorite pastime-fighting.

After the division of the Catholic Church of the west and the Eastern Orthodox Church of the Byzantine Empire, the state of the empire was weakened. The head of the Eastern Orthodox Church Michael Cerularius refused to accept the pope as the sole head of the church, therefore forming a great schism between the two branches of Christianity. The Byzantine Empire was constantly open to external threats from the Turks, Normans, and the Pechenegs. So when a new dynasty was formed by Alexius I Comnenus, the leader turned to the west for assistance in a holy war, and his requests were positively answered leading to the crusades.

Christians were on holy pilgrimage to rid the world of infidels and unbelievers, those being the Muslims. So when the pope saw an opportunity to provide papal leadership for a great cause, they rallied the warriors in an attempt to liberate Jerusalem and the Holy Land. The pope promised knights remission of sins allowing for the knights, who died in battle against the pagans, to be absolved from sin through the power of God which the pope had been invested.

The knights of the crusade were initially tempted by religious fervor, adventure, and the opportunity to engage in fighting, which was of course their favorite pastime. Others believed they would gain more land and holdings, a title, and even salvation. Merchants believed the crusades would allow for greater trade opportunities in the Muslim Lands. It was simply a war to rid Europe of young nobles who insisted upon fighting each other, thereby turning the tables and giving them a new target.

The crusades were a massacre that brought about evil side effects that effected the society of Europe for centuries. The hopes of reviving more trade during the crusades would have had the same results without the murders of thousands of people. Not much as changed even today as Christians and Muslims lay in dispute over the Holy Land.

More Related Articles

The Effect of The Crusades on the Jews

The Jews found themselves in a very difficult position between the two religions at war. The treatment of the Jews by the Crusaders in both Europe and the Middle East was an atrocious episode in the chronicle of the Crusades. Jews were always distrusted and scorned but this turned into widespread persecution and slaughter. Read more about the Effect of the Crusades on the Jews By oeillade

Saladin and The Third Crusade

The main objective of the third crusade was to retake Jerusalem from Muslim control. The reason for this was that a military mastermind named Saladin had united almost all of the Middle Eastern countries under one banner. Saladin was from Tirket, modern day Iraq. When he was young his uncle taught him the ways of a military commander. Read more about Saladin and the Third Crusade ByElliot912


Resources

Medieval Crusades
The Crusades