Monday Ground Up: Causes of the Great Schism of Western Christianity

In the late 14th century and after the death of Pope Gregory XI, the college of cardinals met to elect a new pope. The citizens of Rome feared the return to a French Papacy if a Frenchman was elected. Not only that, the cardinals would open themselves up to attacks if they didn't choose an Italian. They safely elected Bari, who was crowned Pope Urban VI on Easter Sunday.

Urban threatened the cardinals, advising them that he would fill the college with as many Italians as possible, thereby eliminating the French majority. A manifesto was presented by the cardinals stating Urbans election was null and void. The French then elected Clement VII and returned to Avignon. Since Urban remained in Rome, this created the Great Schism, which created new thoughts on state and religion and a rise of the conciliar movement, a decline of the prestige of the church, and a new theological framework.

A Rise in Conciliarism Causes A Decline of the Church

Marsiglio of Padua denied temporal authority and was subject to spiritual authority, stating the church should adhere to spiritual functions, and only that. Final authority would rest in the hands of the general church council. This theory led many to Conciliarism, a belief that a general council could end the schism and reform the church. The calling of the council was a difficult task until Holy Roman Emperor Sisigmunds efforts. He formed a new ecumenical church that met to end the schism, disposing of all 3 popes and electing Pope Martin V, ending the schism.

This led to the declining prestige of the church, especially the papacy. The Schism had greatly aggravated the financial abuses during the Avignonese papacy and two systems of administration for taxes had been implemented. In addition, the faith of all Christians had been damaged, especially considering that the line of popes deemed each other the Antichrist. To make matters worse, during the Black Death parish priests fled , thereby failing to provide spiritual comfort.Family chapels were formed that signified the importance of purgatory, therefore they created a more mechanical path to salvation.

Pilgrimages once again became popular and contributions without the assistance of clerics reflected the weakening of the institutional church. Citizens became more active in their own salvation, even looking to mysticism to experience a oneness with God. In addition, Eckharts movement on the soul and its salvation took on a new form of Modern Devotion, founded by Groote. Groote gained a following, which later was named the Brothers of the Common Good.

The New Vision

The theological framework after the Great Schism was questioned by Thomas Aquinas, whose faith wasn't widely accepted, however it was kept within a niche of scholastic thought. Additionally, William of Occam simply believed that if you couldn't see it, it wasn't real. There was no belief in a higher supreme being and the truths of religion can only be seen by an act of faith. Occam's beliefs, although controversial, led to the development of physical science by using analysis.

Although the Great Schism had a confusing and tense beginning, it created some evolutionary aspects of scholastic thoughts, as well as creating a more family oriented church setting where people could reach salvation without the assistance of the institutional church. In all actuality, one mistake or error led to more discovery.

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The End of the Great Schism and Its Affects on The Renaissance Papacy

The End of the Great Schism and Its Affects on The Renaissance Papacy

The Papacy of the Renaissance encompassed the line of popes from the conclusion of the Great Schism to the beginning of the Reformation in the early 16th century. The papacy had maintained its supremacy, although their moral ethics had overshadowed their ability to rule as religious figures. The Catholic Church was on the decline, and the popes were exerting their warlike efforts on society.

However, there was still a focus on cultural affairs, as Rome was becoming a literary and artistic center of the Renaissance. It quite simply was a time where the latter overshadowed the pope's duties as spiritual leaders to the people.

The efforts of the popes during the Renaissance was much more focused on bloodshed than spiritual enlightenment. Julius II, the "warrior pope", led armies against his enemies, much to the surprise and disgust of his Christian followers. The direction was aimed at territorial claims in the Papal States; however, war was a topic of the church and in their teachings and the intellectuals of the time made that abundantly clear in their writings.

Consider Machiavelli who once wrote in The Prince "If any one should ask of me how comes it that the Church has attained such greatness in temporal power, seeing that from Alexander backwards the Italian potentates (not only those who have been called potentates, but every baron and lord, though the smallest) have valued the temporal power very slightly". Was his observation so far from the truth?

To make matters more complicated, popes were not hereditary monarchs and could not build on their holdings and wealth, so they relied on nepotism to promote their families' interests. Pope Sixtus IV gave his nephews church offices to build up their wealth, and Alexander VI encouraged his son Cesare to claim an Italian state from the territories of the Papal States.

Pope Julius II

Although the act of war and the accumulation of wealth was of great importance at the time, so were the cultural efforts of the popes to transform Rome. Pope Julius II tore down Saint Peter's Basilica, a church originally commissioned by Constantine, and rebuilt what we see today. Leo X was also directly involved as a participant of cultural advancement, however not in a matter of policy.

Saint Peters Basilica

After Lorenzo became a cardinal at the age of 13, he acquired a taste for the arts, manners, and social life of the Renaissance. He became the pope at age 37 and commissioned Raphael to paint Saint Peter's. Shortly after, construction was accelerated in Rome to concrete its position as the artistic capital.

Although the papacy of the Renaissance did experience a decline, there was still an evident move towards a more culturally enlightened existence. Current religious practices were questioned and humanists offered their view on issues of the church. It was time of unanswered questions about tradition and the direction the medieval society and church was taking.

Renaissance Papacy

As a contributing author to many writing sites, it sometimes happens that I post my history and archaeology articles there first. I didn't want any of you to miss out, so I am posting an excerpt from my latest piece titled "The Renaissance Papacy at the End of the Great Schism".

The Papacy of the Renaissance encompassed the line of popes from the conclusion of the Great Schism to the beginning of the Reformation in the early 16th century. The papacy had maintained its supremacy, although their moral ethics had overshadowed their ability to rule as religious figures. The Catholic Church was on the decline, and the popes were exerting their warlike efforts on society. However, there was still a focus on cultural affairs, as Rome was becoming a literary and artistic center of the Renaissance. It quite simply was a time where the latter overshadowed the pope’s duties as spiritual leaders to the people. Read More about my article on the Renaissance Papacy

Monday Ground Up: Distinctive Characteristics of Renaissance Art And Artists

Renaissance art has been characterized as an individualistic approach to humanism, where an eye of an artist interprets what they see everyday. The interpretations may have been realistically based and the emphasis on naturalism was used to persuade onlookers that an object was real-both living and breathing in the eyes of the artist. The standards reflected a focus of the human form and the social, political, and religious aspects of the time.

The Tribute Money, fresco in the Brancacci Chapel in Santa Maria del Carmine, Florence.

Giotto originally began the imitation of nature, however Massacio frescoes in Brancacci Chapel are the first masterpieces of Early Renaissance art. The use of realism to reflect perspective and a relationship between a figure and the landscape, bore a new type of painting and sculpture of dimensions. Other painters, such as Paulo Uccello used mathematical equations to determine space and light. However, this experimentation was more often opportunistic to showcase his mastery of perspective.

Part of the court in Florence was a circle of artists that were interested in Greek and Roman mythology. Sandro Botticelli's famous work, "Primavera" was a removal from realism. The emphasis was on the female form in a naturalistic way, with somewhat of an unworldly quality.

Donatello constructed "David", which first stood in the courtyard of the Medici Palace. The statue was heroic, simple and humanistic.

Architectural art was of great importance, especially since 1296 when the Duomo had just started being built. Brunelleschi drew his inspiration for the completion of the Duomo from Roman antiquity, so he devised a dome to finish the Duomo, which would span over a 140-foot opening.

Federico III da Montefeltro, Duke of Urbino. Portrait

by Piero della Francesca, 1492.

One of the most influential  movements was that of human individuality in their present political or social state. Patrons and aristocrats found themselves painted into the corners of sacred pictures and depicted in statues. Piero della Francesca started capturing a new sense of political power and social standing of his subjects. Of course, this carried over to the High Renaissance where Leonardo Da Vinci, Raphael, and Michelangelo re-focused a humanistic and individual aspect of painting and sculpture towards their commissioned works for the papacy, aristocrats, and political figures.

Leonardo's "Last Supper" depicted an idealism of dismay and a profound psychological dimension. Movement of the figures embodied a living story, brought to live with the stroke of a brush.

Raphael, under commission from the church, painted frescoes in the Vatican, his most famous being the "School of Athens". His art was a classical depiction of social meetings in Greece and Rome.

Pope Julius II commissioned Michelangelo to paint the ceiling of the Sistine Chapel. It was said that the two were constantly arguing over Michelangelo's need to keep each section covered. Pope Julius was very impatient, however when his eyes were finally able to view the splendor of the masterpiece, he had tears in his eyes. Michelangelo depicted the Creation of Adam, as well as the scenes from the book of Genesis. He believed the more perfect the body, the more God-like the figure.

Galleria dell'Accademia, Florence

A copy of the statue standing in the original location of David, in front of the Palazzo Vecchio in Florence.

This would explain his depiction of David, which is far more heroic and masculine looking than Donatellos. The statue had originally been placed in front of the Palazzo Vecchio, the seat of the Florentine government, thereby representing resolve and human power.

The Renaissance is deemed as being the age of enlightenment. There was a new vision of humanism and experimentation with new forms of artistic expression. It's one of those most admired times in history, at least, that's what I believe. How about you?

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• The Causes of the Great Schism
• The Renaissance Papacy at the End of the Great Schism

Polyphonic Musical Composition at Notre Dame

In the central portion of Paris, France there lies an island in the middle of the river Seine. There you will find the huge Cathedral at Notre Dame which was built around 1200 AD. NotreDame is one of the most magnificently architectural locations in all of Europe. It's also a focal point for the first polyphonic music, created in honor of Notre Dame's completion.

In the 12th and 13th centuries, Notre Dame was the focal point of polyphonic music. Polyphony is a texture consisting of two or more independent melodic voices, as opposed to music with just one voice (monophony) or music with one dominant melodic voice accompanied by chords (homophony).

The earliest written sources of music were medieval manuscripts of the late 9th century that contain liturgical texts. Small symbols were used called “neumes that indicated the contour of the melodic lines.

The Cathedral of Notre Dame

 © source

In honor of the construction of this massive structure, two composers created the first polyphonic music in the history of Western music. Leoninus was the eldest son and originally started the collection of polyphonic music that was composed for Notre Dame, adding to the collection by extending the range and scope of the music.

Magnus Liber Organi

The polyphonic musical pieces were made into a compilation of medieval music called the Magnus Liber Organi (Latin for "Great Book of Organum"), known as organum.

Viderunt Omnes

The most famous of the musical compositions was the fourth part of Viderunt Omnes by Perotinus, based on the plainchant of the same name. This chant was meant to be played in the middle of Mass services on Christmas Day.

The most incredible aspect about this musical piece by Perotinus is that, it is built entirely on an ancient structure of musical composition. In addition, the voice parts of the composition were sang entirely by monks or priests.

The evolution of harmony began in the 10th century and it made its way all over the country and the entire world. Not only would your favorite harmonical songs be nonexistent if not for this invention, but our lives would be filled with monophonic music lacking instrumentation and including the voices of monks in unison.