22 Archaeology Books every Future Archaeologist should be reading

Even before I began my education in anthropology and archaeology, I had read several books on theory and method, as well as researched diverse cultures and multiple religions. However, once I started taking classes, the required course books became some of the most impactful resources and tools I had at my disposable. Granted, Indiana Jones would say "If you want to be a good archaeologist, you have to get out of the library". However, what if you also love the research aspect of this discipline, which does require you to sift through hundreds of good and bad books, trying to decipher what's fact and what's opinion?

These books, all of which I have either read cover to cover for classes, or read out of pure enjoyment, all have something to offer archaeology students looking to get into the field.  The book that changed my focus from archaeology to anthropology is the first in my list.  The professor that taught from this book attend University of Pennsylvania and had a curious and sometimes confusing way of approaching the class, and yet, I learned more from his class than any other during my graduate work.

22 Archaeology Books every Future Archaeologist should be reading

Visions of Culture: An Introduction to Anthropological Theories and Theorists – I've read this book from cover to cover several times. This book made me love Herbert Spencer, and even today, I still reference the social organism every chance I get. This new edition of Jerry D. Moore's Visions of Culture presents introductory anthropology students with a brief, readable, and balanced treatment of theoretical developments in the field. (Ancient Digger's Top Pick, and favorite anthropology book

Archaeological Theory: An Introduction – Archaeological Theory, 2nd Edition is the most current and comprehensive introduction to the field available. Thoroughly revised and updated, this engaging text offers students an ideal entry point to the major concepts and ongoing debates in archaeological research.

The Bible Unearthed: Archaeology's New Vision of Ancient Israel and the Origin of Its Sacred Texts
– In this groundbreaking work that sets apart fact and legend, authors Finkelstein and Silberman use significant archeological discoveries to provide historical information about biblical Israel and its neighbors.

Patterns in Prehistory: Humankind's First Three Million Years, 5th Edition (Casebooks in Criticism)
– Patterns in Prehistory, Fifth Edition, is a comprehensive and engaging survey of humanity's past three million years ago. It brings together theories and archaeological examples to pose questions about who we are and the means by which humanity evolved into what it is today. Ideal for introductory courses in world prehistory and origins of complex societies, Patterns in Prehistory, Fifth Edition, offers a unified and thematic approach to the four great transformations--or patterns--that characterize humanity's past: the origins and evolution of culture; the origins of modern humans and human behaviors; the origins of agriculture; and the origins of complex societies, civilizations, and pre-industrial states. Integrating theoretical approaches with archaeological data from the Middle East, Mesoamerica, North and South America, Egypt, China, the Indus Valley, and temperate Europe, Patterns in Prehistory, Fifth Edition, reveals how archaeologists decipher the past. It demonstrates how theory and method are combined to derive interpretations and also considers how interpretations evolve as a result of accumulating data, technological advances in recording and analyzing data sets, and newer theoretical perspectives.

Friend by Day, Enemy by Night: Organized Vengeance in a Kohistani Community (Case Studies in Cultural Anthropology) – This particular discussion is about the road built to the isolated villages and how it changed the community. Interestingly, you would think with the addition of a new info structure, organized vengeance would fade to some sort of degree. This was not case, as the first highway system actually promoted it, linking villagers with a more modern economy and a new political system. Therefore, this new highway triggered sociocultural transitions in Thull that ultimately resulted in Dushmani.

Life in the Pueblo: Understanding the Past Through Archaeology – Within the effective format of a nontechnical case study, Life in the Pueblo provides an understanding of the basic methodologies in modern archaeology, including the formation of archaeological sites, dating, the role of ethnographic analogy, and analytic techniques like trace element sourcing, use-wear analysis, and carbon isotope determinations of diet. The archaeological interpretations are put into perspective by the inclusion of Hope and Zuni history and myth and the liberal use of ethnographic information from the Hopi and other historic and modern puebloan groups. A short fictional reconstruction of life in the village invites the reader to reflect on the fact that the past was a period occupied by people, not just potsherds. Based on four years of excavation and ten years of analysis of a puebloan site near modern Flagstaff, Arizona, this profusely illustrated volume captures readers' interest and imagination as it explores some of the fundamental principles of archaeology.

Native Religions of North America: The Power of Visions and Fertility – The diversity and continuities in American Indian spirituality! The religious life of Native Americans is a panorama featuring an immense diversity of beliefs, ceremonies, and ways of life. Native Religions of North America reflects this rich tradition as it admirably distills a complex subject in a practical and engaging manner. Through concise expression and careful choice of examples, Hultkrantz identifies the diversity and continuities in American Indian spirituality. He introduces the hunters and farmers, the past and present, and the physical contexts and the sublime speculations of tribal religions, even the subtle shades of meaning within an Indian community.

Ancient Egypt: An Introduction – This book provides an introduction to one of the greatest civilization of all time - ancient Egypt. Beginning with a geographical overview that explains the development of Egyptian belief systems as well as its subsequent political development, it examines methodology, the history of the discipline of Egyptology, religion, social organization, urban and rural life, and death. It also includes a section on how people of all ranks lived. Lavishly illustrated, with many unusual photographs of rarely seen sites that are seldom illustrated, this volume is suitable for use in introductory-level courses on ancient Egypt. It offers a variety of student-friendly features, including a glossary, a bibliography, and a list of sources for those who wish to further their interest in ancient Egypt.

Sexuality in Greek and Roman Culture – "Sexuality in Greek and Roman Culture" is the first comprehensive survey of ancient Greek and Roman sexuality. This title covers a wide range of subjects, including Greek pederasty and the symposium, ancient prostitution, representations of women in Greece and Rome, and the public regulation of sexual behavior. It introduces readers to the bitter theoretical debates that have been fought about gender and sexuality in the classical world. The material is ordered chronologically. This title draws parallels between ancient sexual ideology and contemporary culture. It also draws on literary, artistic and archaeological sources, as well as secondary scholarly sources. It was theoretically sophisticated and skillfully argued, yet accessible.

Lives in Ruins: Archaeologists and the Seductive Lure of Human Rubble – History is recorded in many ways. According to author James Deetz, the past can be seen most fully by studying the small things so often forgotten. Objects such as doorways, gravestones, musical instruments, and even shards of pottery fill in the cracks between large historical events and depict the intricacies of daily life. In his completely revised and expanded edition of In Small Things Forgotten, Deetz has added new sections that more fully acknowledge the presence of women and African Americans in Colonial America. New interpretations of archaeological finds detail how minorities influenced and were affected by the development of the Anglo-American tradition

In Small Things Forgotten: An Archaeology of Early American Life – History is recorded in many ways. According to author James Deetz, the past can be seen most fully by studying the small things so often forgotten. Objects such as doorways, gravestones, musical instruments, and even shards of pottery fill in the cracks between large historical events and depict the intricacies of daily life. In his completely revised and expanded edition of In Small Things Forgotten, Deetz has added new sections that more fully acknowledge the presence of women and African Americans in Colonial America.

A History of Ancient Egypt (Blackwell History of the Ancient World) –Outlining the major political and cultural events, A History of Ancient Egypt is an authoritative and accessible introduction to this fascinating ancient culture. An accessible chronological narrative that draws on a range of historical sources. Offers an up-to-date survey of ancient Egypt’s history from its origins to its domination by the Roman Empire. Considers social and economic life and the rich culture of ancient Egypt
Places Egypt’s history within its regional context, detailing interactions with Asia and Africa. Engages students with various perspectives on a range of critical issues with the Key Debate section included in each chapter. Makes the latest discoveries and scholarship accessible to a wide audience

The Quest for the Historical Israel: Debating Archaeology and the History of Early Israel (Archaeology and Biblical Studies) – Three decades of dialogue, discussion, and debate within the interrelated disciplines of Syro-Palestinian archaeology, ancient Israelite history, and Hebrew Bible over the question of the relevance of the biblical account for reconstructing early Israels history have created the need for a balanced articulation of the issues and their prospective resolutions. This book brings together for the first time and under one cover, a currently emerging centrist paradigm as articulated by two leading figures in the fields of early Israelite archaeology and history. Although Finkelstein and Mazar advocate distinct views of early Israels history, they nevertheless share the position that the material cultural data, the biblical traditions, and the ancient Near Eastern written sources are all significantly relevant to the historical quest for Iron Age Israel. The results of their research are featured in accessible, parallel syntheses of the historical reconstruction of early Israel that facilitate comparison and contrast of their respective interpretations.

Archaeology 6th Edition – This text pairs two of archaeology's most recognized names: Robert L. Kelly and David Hurst Thomas, who together have over seventy years of experience leading excavations. The sixth edition of ARCHAEOLOGY reflects the most recent research and changes in the field, while covering core concepts in an exceptionally student-friendly fashion using personalized examples and high-interest topics. This edition continues a tradition of combining academic rigor with an engaging writing style that has made ARCHAEOLOGY one of the most well-respected and best-selling texts in the discipline. A rich array of supplemental resources is available for purchase, including a book companion website, as well as a CD-ROM developed by the authors entitled DOING FIELDWORK: ARCHAEOLOGICAL DEMONSTRATIONS.

1177 B.C.: The Year Civilization Collapsed (Turning Points in Ancient History) – A compelling combination of narrative and the latest scholarship, 1177 B.C. sheds new light on the complex ties that gave rise to, and ultimately destroyed, the flourishing civilizations of the Late Bronze Age—and that set the stage for the emergence of classical Greece.

Archaeology Essentials: Theories, Methods, and Practice – This new brief version of the best-selling textbook was carefully rewritten to provide a readable and compact introduction to archaeology for those new to the field. No other book of this length can match its range of essential information and explanation. The vocabulary and the use of technical terms have been carefully reviewed. The amount of detail has been considerably reduced, and coverage of difficult or cutting-edge topics is made more accessible for students in courses that treat such subjects briefly. In particular, the coverage of archaeological theory and science has been substantially rewritten to provide a convenient overview without overwhelming the student. 220 black-and-white illustrations

The Complete Pompeii (The Complete Series) – With its lavish illustrations, covering monumental architecture and inscriptions, shops, graffiti, wall-paintings, and mosaics, plus its numerous box features ranging from theatrical entertainments to water supply, The Complete Pompeii is the ultimate resource and inspirational guide to this iconic ancient town.

The Last Days of the Incas–The epic story of the fall of the Inca Empire to Spanish conquistador Francisco Pizarro in the aftermath of a bloody civil war, and the recent discovery of the lost guerrilla capital of the Incas, Vilcabamba, by three American explorers.

Visions of Culture: An Introduction to Anthropological Theories and Theorists – I've read this book from cover to cover several times. This book made me love Herbert Spencer, and even today, I still reference the social organism every chance I get. This new edition of Jerry D. Moore's Visions of Culture presents introductory anthropology students with a brief, readable, and balanced treatment of theoretical developments in the field. (Ancient Digger's Top Pick, and favorite anthropology book

Archaeology for Dummies – This is the perfect archaeology for beginners book. Archaeology For Dummies offers a fascinating look at this intriguing field, taking readers on-site and revealing little-known details about some of the world's greatest archaeological discoveries. It explores how archaeology attempts to uncover the lives of our ancestors, examining historical dig sites around the world and explaining theories about ancient human societies. The guide also offers helpful information for readers who want to participate in an excavation themselves, as well as tips for getting the best training and where to look for jobs.

The Archaeology Book (Wonders of Creation) – Developed with three educational levels in mind, The Archaeology Book takes you on an exciting exploration of history and ancient cultures. You'll learn both the techniques of the archaeologist and the accounts of some of the richest discoveries of the Middle East that demonstrate the accuracy and historicity of the Bible.

Archaeology: Theories, Methods, and Practice (Sixth Edition) – Since its first edition, Renfrew and Bahn’s Archaeology: Theories, Methods, and Practice has been the leading academic source on what archaeologists do and how they do it. This indispensable resource is a comprehensive introduction to archaeology’s theories, methods, and practices in the field, the laboratory, and the library.

Gods, Graves & Scholars: The Story of Archaeology – C.W. Ceram visualized archeology as a wonderful combination of high adventure, romance, history and scholarship, and this book, a chronicle of man's search for his past, reads like a dramatic narrative. We travel with Heinrich Schliemann as, defying the ridicule of the learned world, he actually unearths the remains of the ancient city of Troy. We share the excitement of Lord Carnarvon and Howard Carter as they first glimpse the riches of Tutankhamen's tomb, of George Smith when he found the ancient clay tablets that contained the records of the Biblical Flood. We rediscover the ruined splendors of the Hanging Gardens of Babylon, one of the wonders of the ancient wold; of Chichen Itza, the abandoned pyramids of the Maya: and the legendary Labyrinth of tile Minotaur in Crete. Here is much of the history of civilization and the stories of the men who rediscovered it.

Archeologists unearth new information on origins of Maya civilization

The Maya civilization is well-known for its elaborate temples, sophisticated writing system, and mathematical and astronomical developments, yet the civilization's origins remain something of a mystery.

A new University of Arizona study to be published in the journal Science challenges the two prevailing theories on how the ancient civilization began, suggesting its origins are more complex than previously thought.

Anthropologists typically fall into one of two competing camps with regard to the origins of Maya civilization. The first camp believes that it developed almost entirely on its own in the jungles of what is now Guatemala and southern Mexico. The second believes that the Maya civilization developed as the result of direct influences from the older Olmec civilization and its center of La Venta.

It's likely that neither of those theories tells the full story, according to findings by a team of archaeologists led by UA husband-and-wife anthropologists Takeshi Inomata and Daniela Triadan.

"We really focused on the beginning of this civilization and how this remarkable civilization developed," said Inomata, UA professor of anthropology and the study's lead author.

In their excavations at Ceibal, an ancient Maya site in Guatemala, researchers found that Ceibal actually predates the growth of La Venta as a major center by as much as 200 years, suggesting that La Venta could not have been the prevailing influence over early Mayan development.

That does not make the Maya civilization older than the Olmec civilization – since Olmec had another center prior to La Venta – nor does it prove that the Maya civilization developed entirely independently, researchers say.

What it does indicate, they say, is that both Ceibal and La Venta probably participated in a broader cultural shift taking place in the period between 1,150-800 B.C.

"We're saying that the scenario of early Maya culture is really more complex than we thought," said UA anthropology graduate student Victor Castillo, who co-authored the paper with Inomata and Triadan.

"We have this idea of the origin of Maya civilization as an indigenous development, and we have this other idea that it was an external influence that triggered the social complexity of Maya civilization. We're now thinking it's not actually black and white," Castillo said.

There is no denying the striking similarities between Ceibal and La Venta, such as evidence of similar ritual practices and the presence of similar architecture – namely the pyramids that would come to be the hallmark of Mesoamerican civilization but did not exist at the earlier Olmec center of San Lorenzo.

However, researchers don't think this is the case of simply one site mimicking the other. Rather, they suspect that both the Maya site of Ceibal and the Olmec site of La Venta were parts of a more geographically far-reaching cultural shift that occurred around 1,000 B.C., about the time when the Olmec center was transitioning from San Lorenzo to La Venta.

"Basically, there was a major social change happening from the southern Maya lowlands to possibly the coast of Chiapas and the southern Gulf Coast, and this site of Ceibal was a part of that broader social change," Inomata said. "The emergence of a new form of society – with new architecture, with new rituals – became really the important basis for all later Mesoamerican civilizations."

The Science paper, titled "Early Ceremonial Constructions at Ceibal, Guatemala, and the Origins of Lowland Maya Civilization," is based on seven years of excavations at Ceibal.

Additional authors of the paper include Japanese researchers Kazuo Aoyama of the University of Ibaraki, Mito and Hitoshi Yonenobu of the Naruto University of Education, Tokushima.

"We were looking at the emergence of specific cultural traits that were shared by many of those Mesoamerican centers, particularly the form of rituals and the construction of the pyramids," Inomata said. "This gives us a new idea about the beginning of Maya civilization, and it also tells us about how common traits shared by many different Mesoamerican civilizations emerged during that time."

Source: UA News

Ancient Necropolis Unearthed Near Marten

Photo by Ruse History Museum

A necropolis with over 100 burials has been unearthed during archaeological excavations near the village of Marten in northern Bulgaria.

The discovery was made by the archaeologist from the Archaeology Museum in the Danube city of Ruse, Deyan Dragoev.

The necropolis is on the path of the future gas connection between Bulgaria and Romania.

The site includes tombs from the Thracian times to the times of the First Bulgarian Kingdom. The oldest ones date from the 5th – 4th centuries B.C. Some reveal very interesting rites such as the tomb of a decapitated soldier, whose head was laid on his lap, while others have been buried with gold and silver jewelry or with their dogs.

Some skeletons have deformed skulls, which have been typical for the First Bulgarian Kingdom as a sign of high position in society and of nobility. Noble children then had their heads tightened with headbands in order to change the form of the skull, experts say.

Remnants include wooden coffins, and ceramics and glass from Roman times.

The two Thracian tombs, according to archaeologists, show that a Thracian settlement, unknown until now, has been located nearby.

On Wednesday, the Ruse archaeologists sent bone material for analysis at the Bulgarian Academy of Sciences.

Source: Novinite

Experts From Khyber Pakhtunkhwa Archaeology Department Examine Gandhara Civilisation Artefacts and Relics

Director of Museums Dr Shah Nazar told Dawn on Saturday that a five-member team led by Prof. Farid Khan would proceed to Karachi on Monday for physical verification and examination of the seized archaeological objects.

Other members of the team included Peshawar Museum curator Nidaullah Sehrai, Dr Samad of Hazara University and Mohammad Fawad from University of Peshawar. The team was constituted in Peshawar on Saturday.

“These people are archaeologists and expert on Gandhara,” said Dr Nazar, adding that the team would cooperate with the Sindh Archaeology Department in verification of the artefacts.

Police recovered a huge consignment of artefacts dating back to Gandhara period from a container and arrested two people. The director said that the team would also determine whether the recovered objects were original or fake. He said that only geologists could confirm originality of archaeological objects made of stone.

Soon after the seizure of relics and artefacts Provincial Minister for Tourism and Archaeology Syed Aqil Shah demanded return of the objects to Khyber Pakhtunkhwa. He stated that Gandhara civilisation belonged to Khyber Pakhtunkhwa and under the existing law seized objects should be returned to its place of origin. He said that these pieces would be displayed at Peshawar and Swat museums.

Dr Nazar said that the seized items were now case property and after decision by the court the provincial government would ask for the return of these objects to Khyber Pakhtunkhwa. “Once the court decides the case the provincial directorate will take up the issue with the concerned quarters for handing over these objects to the province,” he said.

However, sources in the federal archaeology department said it was not necessary that the seized objects belonged to Khyber Pakhtunkhwa.

A senior archaeologist said that Gandhara civilisation was spread over vast region, including parts of Afghanistan, Federally Administered Tribal Areas, Khyber Pakhtunkhwa and Taxila.

“The seized objects might have been excavated in Afghanistan or any other area,” said the archaeologist, adding that only experts could determine its place of origin. He said that federal Antiquity Act 1996 still existed and its ownership could generate controversy.

Officials in the provincial archeology department acknowledged large-scale illegal excavation of archaeological sites in Khyber Pakhtunkhwa and other parts of the region. They said that these objects might be excavated illegally from a site.

Dr Nazar, however, confirmed that so far there was no theft case reported from any of the museum in the province, therefore, it appeared that the seized artefacts might be outcome of illegal excavation.

“Of course, illegal excavation is taking place everywhere and archaeological objects are smuggled,” he said in reply to a question.

Sources said that even if the artefacts turned out to be fake it would require the relevant authorities to investigate the matter, as making fake artefacts was also a crime under the law.

Source: Dawn

Archaeology Discovery: 1100 Year Old Friezes Found In Peru

The 1100 year old temple dates from the ancient Lambayeque culture and was home to hundreds of human sacrifices. Today, archaeologists discovered several spectacular polychrome friezes in the temple that are beautifully preserved.In two weeks, the temple located in the Chotuna archaeological complex, will be open for public viewing.

"Now that the friezes have been uncovered, the archaeologists are fighting to preserve them and directed the construction of a roof to protect the works from the sun and rain. The Lambayeque, or Sican, culture flourished on Peru's northern coast 1,200 years ago. Countless archaeological finds made the area a magnet for looters for many years".

Source
3News

Could Akrotiri Be The Lost City of Atlantis?

Akrotiri lies on 49 acres on the Cycladic island of Thera. During the Bronze Age, Akrotiri was quite impressive with its elaborate construction. The town was occupied in the Late Neolithic period, but evolved into a major town in 2000BC. Like Pompeii, Akrotiri was the site of a volcanic disaster. The island, with its center hollowed out, left a crescent moon shape.

Archaeological Evidence

The dates of the volcanic eruption and disaster are a bit fuzzy. Archaeologists have dated the disaster to around 1550 B.C.E, however scientific evidence places the event a century earlier in 1650 B.C.E.
During the Late Neolithic period hydraulic systems were paving the way for new states, as is evident in the elaborate drainage system at Akrotiri. There were also streets, squares, and houses built up to a height of 26 feet. The town was the epitome of a state society with blocks of houses, freestanding monuments, and elaborate buildings constructed entirely out of stone. Typical of the Neolithic period, food stores were discovered as well as preparation areas and crafting rooms.



The material culture, consisting of vast quantities of pottery and metalware, indicates a connection with the Near East, Cyprus, Dodecanese, the Greek mainland, and Crete. The frescoes at Akrotiri are exquisitely preserved, many depicting ritual scenes of women gathering saffron, boxing men, fisherman, decorative rosettes, and blue monkeys.

Gold Ibex

Via wikipedia
Further excavation turned up a single gold artifact. The Gold Ibex found in 2007, on display at the Museum of Prehistoric Thera. Also featured at the museum are firedogs, a volcanic ash cast of a wooden table, ewers, animal figurines, and a Marble schematic figurine.

Mystery of Akrotiri

Interestingly enough, no skeletal remains were ever discovered at Akrotiri, leading experts to believe there was an evacuation prior to the volcanic eruption. The question is where did everyone go?

The Atlantis Myth

Like many other locations in Greece, Akrotiri was believed to be the site of the fabled city of Atlantis. Atlantis was first mentioned by the Greek philosopher Plato, and although his stories invoke true skepticism by scholars, others believe there’s some truth and may have been inspired by true events in Akrotiri.

Akrotiri today

The site is unfortunately not open to the public, although the hope is it will reopen in 2010. The main reason for this delay is because in 2005, the roof structure protecting the site, collapsed just prior to its completion in 2005, killing one patron.

All pictures courtesy of Klearchos Kapoutsis

Hattusha (Hattusa) Archaeological Site In Bogazkoy Turkey

Arial View of Hattusha Archaeological Site in Bogazkoy Turkey

Source

The archaeological site of Hattusha is situated in Anatolia, now modern day Turkey. Hattusha sits 90 miles east of Ankara, first occupied in the third millennium BCE.

The Hittites arrived at Hattusha during 1700 BCE and were one of the greatest powers of the ancient world. Ruled by King Hattusili , ruled from 1650-1620 BCE. The Hittites conquered Babylon, overshadowed Troy, and constructed an empire that rivaled the Assyrians and Egyptians.

Hattusha remained a site of great importance for the Hittites until its destruction in 1190 BCE. Later it was occupied by Galatians and Phrygians.

The archaeological site of Hattusha, although smaller is scale as opposed to its counterparts in neighboring areas, does outline several achievements.

Hattusha archaeology site, discovered in the early 19th century, did not gain significant importance until the 20th century when Hugo Winckler and Theodor Makridi Bey conducted the first excavations in 1906, 1907, and 1911–13.

Later, archaeological excavation resumed in 1933 under Kurt Bittel, followed by Peter Neve (site director 1963, general director 1978–94).

One of the most important discoveries at the site has been the cuneiform royal archives of 10,000 clay tablets. One of the clay tablets inscribed included a peace treaty, one of the oldest ever found.

The site at Hattusha also consisted of official correspondence and contracts, as well as legal codes, procedures for cult ceremony, oracular prophecies and literature of the ancient Near East. 

Excavations by archaeologists at Hattusha revealed the size of the city. The city spanned over 450 acres and included seven temples, the largest containing shrines to the weather god, Hatti, and sun goddess Arinna.

The Hittites excelled at sculpture, taking immense care at crafting the massive guardian spirits which flanked the gateway. These include lions, warriors, and sphinxes.

Hattusha: the Hittite Capital, became a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 1986.

Quirigua Archeological Park in Guatemala

Quirigua Archeological Park in Izabel, Guatemala was abandoned around the 10th century. The rulers of Quirigua's rulers were rich beyond imagination on the areas natural resources, the most lucrative being jade. The earliest of the ruins date back to 550, although archeologists believe the site was inhabited before that time.

Quirigua's stonework shares many of the same characteristics as the Copan Ruins in Honduras. The civilization was much smaller, and therefore considered less important in the Mayan world.It wasn't until the ruler of Quirigua captured Copan's leader, that Quirigua earned its independence. The civilization of Copan at that time lost all dominance over Quirigua.

The site itself wasn't rediscovered by Europeans until the 18th century.  By the 20th century, however, the United States-owned the United Fruit Company. As a result, the ruins, including the world's best pre-Columbian stelae, are surrounded by fruit plantations.

There are nine ornately carved stelae, the tallest being 36 feet high. Nearby, there is a ruined pyramid and several stone carvings. Like many pre-Columbian sites, there are altars and stelae decorated with images portraying humans with unusual features and several different species of animals. Oddly, Quirigua is most famous for its zoomorphs, which are depictions of creatures that are half man and half animal.


Click on the images to see the civilization of Copan in Honduras.

Picture Sources

Monday Ground Up: Mayan Civilizations-the Evolution

The ruins of Palenque.

The Mayan culture may just be one of the most dynamic representations of rich cultural heritage the world has ever seen. With the civilization came invention, and although advances such as writing, epigraphy, and the calendar did not originate with the Maya, their civilization fully developed them.

The customs maintained are a result of the unification of pre-Columbian and post-Conquest philosophies-structured by the almost total adoption of Roman Catholicism.

According to "accepted history" the first “Maya” settlements were established in around 1800 BC in the Soconusco region of the Pacific Coast. This point in time, known as the Early Preclassic, was characterized by sedentary communities and the introduction of pottery and fired clay figurines.

Panel from Cancuén portraying the ruler T’ah 'ak' Cha’an.

During the Classic period, the most monumental of creations took life in the form of stepped pyramids. The Mayan's built pyramids in their religious centers and the accompanying palaces of their rulers. The palace at Cancuen is the largest in the Maya area, though the site lacks pyramids.

The Collapse of Mayan Civilization

The end of the Mayan civilization is arguably one of the most researched collapses in archaeological history. During the 8th and 9th centuries, the surrounding areas were abandoned due to over population, drought, disease, and war.

Ecological hypotheses include environmental disaster, epidemic disease, and climate change. There is evidence that the Maya population surpassed carrying capacity of the environment including exhaustion of agricultural potential and overhunting of megafauna.^[3] Some scholars have recently theorized that an intense 200 year drought led to the collapse of Maya civilization.^[4] The drought theory originated from research performed by physical scientists studying lake beds,^[5] ancient pollen, and other data, not from the archaeological community.

Related Articles

BradONeill shares his incredible experience in Peru, where romance blossomed in an ancient civilization.

When I heard about the program I was kind of skeptical of my chances. I had never been to Peru. But the grant specifically called for a professor of Archeology willing to teach a course in Ancient Incan construction and then it culminated in a month long work program where the professor and students would act as tour guides and have access for academic study to all parts of the glorious city. More about Machu Picchu

Athena Goodlight from Rizal, Philippines, takes us on an amazingly picturesque journey through the country side. A perspective from an open mind and appreciative traveler.

Athena presents Exploring the Wonders of the Maya Route posted at trifter, saying, "Stretching from Southern Mexico into Belize and Guatemala, the Maya Route is a region where you can scale jungle-entwined temples by day, then dress up for a sparkling night on the town in seaside resorts or charming cities."

Athena presents Why the Ancient Mayan Culture is So Mesmerizing posted at Trifter, saying, "What makes the ancient Maya culture so mesmerizing today? For some, it’s the beauty: From the graceful pyramids of Palenque, in Mexico, to Guatemala’s Tikal, rising above a green canopy of rain forest, the Maya left behind a stunning artistic architectural legacy."

A stucco relief from Palenque depicting Upakal K'inich.

This is on display at the Jade Museum in Antigua, Guatemala. Today, some Mayans decorate their teeth with gold inlays, hundreds of years ago they seem to have used jade. By DavidDennisPhotos.com

Jade Mayan Mask

A jade mask that metaphorically represents the Rain God Chaac, and the Creator God Kukulkan.

A Middle Preclassic palace structure at Nakbé, the Mirador Basin.

Tulum

Tulum is just across the water from Cozumel, Mexico. Postcard type photo...
HDR. Gauss on a bit. Comes across as one of those old colored BW postcards. by joiseyshowaa

Pyramid of Kukulcan

View from the Great Ball Court towards the Pyramid of Kukulcan (El Castillo) and the Temple of the Warriors (to the left). By the time I took this photo there were ever-growing hordes of visitors that made taking a clean shot difficult. In this photo I was able to use this Mayan wall (bottom foreground) to shield out all the gringos. by Rob Shenk

Mayan House

This is a photo of a Mayan house. Most of it's walls have fallen down but you can still see the front stops. Most houses in the Mayan culture look similar to this. By amber.kennedy

National Geographic: Palenque Prized for Unlocking Maya Mysteries

The first published account of this lost city was in 1567, from a Spaniard, Father Pedro Lorenzo de la Nada.Exploring near the Usumacinta River, located in the modern Mexican state of Chiapas, Lorenzo came upon its stone temples and plazas, originally decorated with blue- and red-painted stucco but by then long abandoned by the Maya who built it. Lorenzo gave the grand structure the name Palenque, a Spanish word meaning "fortification." Read More

By Kelly Hearn

More Interesting Links

• Take a Mayan Tour
  
• Foundation for the Advancement of Mesoamerican Studies, Inc (FAMSI)
• Mayan Math and astronomy
• Mayan Civilization in Xcaret
• Mayaweb (Dutch and English)
• Guatemala, Cradle of The Maya Civilization
• Web page of the Maya Esteem Project centered on Maya sites in Chilon, Chiapas, Mexico.
• Web page of the Maya Blue Pigment
• Maya Tools, Weapons & Artifacts
• Courtly Art of the Ancient Maya at the National Gallery of Art

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References

1. Drew (2004), p.6.
2. Coe, Michael D. (2002). The Maya (6th ed.). Thames & Hudson. pp. 47.
3. University of Florida study: Maya politics likely played role in ancient large-game decline, Nov. 2007
4. Gill, R. (2000). The Great Maya Droughts. Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press. ISBN 0826321941.
5. Hodell, David A.; Curtis, Jason H.; Brenner, Mark (1995). "Possible role of climate in the collapse of Classic Maya civilization". Nature 375 (6530): 391–394. doi:10.1038/375391a0.

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