22 Archaeology Books every Future Archaeologist should be reading

Even before I began my education in anthropology and archaeology, I had read several books on theory and method, as well as researched diverse cultures and multiple religions. However, once I started taking classes, the required course books became some of the most impactful resources and tools I had at my disposable. Granted, Indiana Jones would say "If you want to be a good archaeologist, you have to get out of the library". However, what if you also love the research aspect of this discipline, which does require you to sift through hundreds of good and bad books, trying to decipher what's fact and what's opinion?

These books, all of which I have either read cover to cover for classes, or read out of pure enjoyment, all have something to offer archaeology students looking to get into the field.  The book that changed my focus from archaeology to anthropology is the first in my list.  The professor that taught from this book attend University of Pennsylvania and had a curious and sometimes confusing way of approaching the class, and yet, I learned more from his class than any other during my graduate work.

22 Archaeology Books every Future Archaeologist should be reading

Visions of Culture: An Introduction to Anthropological Theories and Theorists – I've read this book from cover to cover several times. This book made me love Herbert Spencer, and even today, I still reference the social organism every chance I get. This new edition of Jerry D. Moore's Visions of Culture presents introductory anthropology students with a brief, readable, and balanced treatment of theoretical developments in the field. (Ancient Digger's Top Pick, and favorite anthropology book

Archaeological Theory: An Introduction – Archaeological Theory, 2nd Edition is the most current and comprehensive introduction to the field available. Thoroughly revised and updated, this engaging text offers students an ideal entry point to the major concepts and ongoing debates in archaeological research.

The Bible Unearthed: Archaeology's New Vision of Ancient Israel and the Origin of Its Sacred Texts
– In this groundbreaking work that sets apart fact and legend, authors Finkelstein and Silberman use significant archeological discoveries to provide historical information about biblical Israel and its neighbors.

Patterns in Prehistory: Humankind's First Three Million Years, 5th Edition (Casebooks in Criticism)
– Patterns in Prehistory, Fifth Edition, is a comprehensive and engaging survey of humanity's past three million years ago. It brings together theories and archaeological examples to pose questions about who we are and the means by which humanity evolved into what it is today. Ideal for introductory courses in world prehistory and origins of complex societies, Patterns in Prehistory, Fifth Edition, offers a unified and thematic approach to the four great transformations--or patterns--that characterize humanity's past: the origins and evolution of culture; the origins of modern humans and human behaviors; the origins of agriculture; and the origins of complex societies, civilizations, and pre-industrial states. Integrating theoretical approaches with archaeological data from the Middle East, Mesoamerica, North and South America, Egypt, China, the Indus Valley, and temperate Europe, Patterns in Prehistory, Fifth Edition, reveals how archaeologists decipher the past. It demonstrates how theory and method are combined to derive interpretations and also considers how interpretations evolve as a result of accumulating data, technological advances in recording and analyzing data sets, and newer theoretical perspectives.

Friend by Day, Enemy by Night: Organized Vengeance in a Kohistani Community (Case Studies in Cultural Anthropology) – This particular discussion is about the road built to the isolated villages and how it changed the community. Interestingly, you would think with the addition of a new info structure, organized vengeance would fade to some sort of degree. This was not case, as the first highway system actually promoted it, linking villagers with a more modern economy and a new political system. Therefore, this new highway triggered sociocultural transitions in Thull that ultimately resulted in Dushmani.

Life in the Pueblo: Understanding the Past Through Archaeology – Within the effective format of a nontechnical case study, Life in the Pueblo provides an understanding of the basic methodologies in modern archaeology, including the formation of archaeological sites, dating, the role of ethnographic analogy, and analytic techniques like trace element sourcing, use-wear analysis, and carbon isotope determinations of diet. The archaeological interpretations are put into perspective by the inclusion of Hope and Zuni history and myth and the liberal use of ethnographic information from the Hopi and other historic and modern puebloan groups. A short fictional reconstruction of life in the village invites the reader to reflect on the fact that the past was a period occupied by people, not just potsherds. Based on four years of excavation and ten years of analysis of a puebloan site near modern Flagstaff, Arizona, this profusely illustrated volume captures readers' interest and imagination as it explores some of the fundamental principles of archaeology.

Native Religions of North America: The Power of Visions and Fertility – The diversity and continuities in American Indian spirituality! The religious life of Native Americans is a panorama featuring an immense diversity of beliefs, ceremonies, and ways of life. Native Religions of North America reflects this rich tradition as it admirably distills a complex subject in a practical and engaging manner. Through concise expression and careful choice of examples, Hultkrantz identifies the diversity and continuities in American Indian spirituality. He introduces the hunters and farmers, the past and present, and the physical contexts and the sublime speculations of tribal religions, even the subtle shades of meaning within an Indian community.

Ancient Egypt: An Introduction – This book provides an introduction to one of the greatest civilization of all time - ancient Egypt. Beginning with a geographical overview that explains the development of Egyptian belief systems as well as its subsequent political development, it examines methodology, the history of the discipline of Egyptology, religion, social organization, urban and rural life, and death. It also includes a section on how people of all ranks lived. Lavishly illustrated, with many unusual photographs of rarely seen sites that are seldom illustrated, this volume is suitable for use in introductory-level courses on ancient Egypt. It offers a variety of student-friendly features, including a glossary, a bibliography, and a list of sources for those who wish to further their interest in ancient Egypt.

Sexuality in Greek and Roman Culture – "Sexuality in Greek and Roman Culture" is the first comprehensive survey of ancient Greek and Roman sexuality. This title covers a wide range of subjects, including Greek pederasty and the symposium, ancient prostitution, representations of women in Greece and Rome, and the public regulation of sexual behavior. It introduces readers to the bitter theoretical debates that have been fought about gender and sexuality in the classical world. The material is ordered chronologically. This title draws parallels between ancient sexual ideology and contemporary culture. It also draws on literary, artistic and archaeological sources, as well as secondary scholarly sources. It was theoretically sophisticated and skillfully argued, yet accessible.

Lives in Ruins: Archaeologists and the Seductive Lure of Human Rubble – History is recorded in many ways. According to author James Deetz, the past can be seen most fully by studying the small things so often forgotten. Objects such as doorways, gravestones, musical instruments, and even shards of pottery fill in the cracks between large historical events and depict the intricacies of daily life. In his completely revised and expanded edition of In Small Things Forgotten, Deetz has added new sections that more fully acknowledge the presence of women and African Americans in Colonial America. New interpretations of archaeological finds detail how minorities influenced and were affected by the development of the Anglo-American tradition

In Small Things Forgotten: An Archaeology of Early American Life – History is recorded in many ways. According to author James Deetz, the past can be seen most fully by studying the small things so often forgotten. Objects such as doorways, gravestones, musical instruments, and even shards of pottery fill in the cracks between large historical events and depict the intricacies of daily life. In his completely revised and expanded edition of In Small Things Forgotten, Deetz has added new sections that more fully acknowledge the presence of women and African Americans in Colonial America.

A History of Ancient Egypt (Blackwell History of the Ancient World) –Outlining the major political and cultural events, A History of Ancient Egypt is an authoritative and accessible introduction to this fascinating ancient culture. An accessible chronological narrative that draws on a range of historical sources. Offers an up-to-date survey of ancient Egypt’s history from its origins to its domination by the Roman Empire. Considers social and economic life and the rich culture of ancient Egypt
Places Egypt’s history within its regional context, detailing interactions with Asia and Africa. Engages students with various perspectives on a range of critical issues with the Key Debate section included in each chapter. Makes the latest discoveries and scholarship accessible to a wide audience

The Quest for the Historical Israel: Debating Archaeology and the History of Early Israel (Archaeology and Biblical Studies) – Three decades of dialogue, discussion, and debate within the interrelated disciplines of Syro-Palestinian archaeology, ancient Israelite history, and Hebrew Bible over the question of the relevance of the biblical account for reconstructing early Israels history have created the need for a balanced articulation of the issues and their prospective resolutions. This book brings together for the first time and under one cover, a currently emerging centrist paradigm as articulated by two leading figures in the fields of early Israelite archaeology and history. Although Finkelstein and Mazar advocate distinct views of early Israels history, they nevertheless share the position that the material cultural data, the biblical traditions, and the ancient Near Eastern written sources are all significantly relevant to the historical quest for Iron Age Israel. The results of their research are featured in accessible, parallel syntheses of the historical reconstruction of early Israel that facilitate comparison and contrast of their respective interpretations.

Archaeology 6th Edition – This text pairs two of archaeology's most recognized names: Robert L. Kelly and David Hurst Thomas, who together have over seventy years of experience leading excavations. The sixth edition of ARCHAEOLOGY reflects the most recent research and changes in the field, while covering core concepts in an exceptionally student-friendly fashion using personalized examples and high-interest topics. This edition continues a tradition of combining academic rigor with an engaging writing style that has made ARCHAEOLOGY one of the most well-respected and best-selling texts in the discipline. A rich array of supplemental resources is available for purchase, including a book companion website, as well as a CD-ROM developed by the authors entitled DOING FIELDWORK: ARCHAEOLOGICAL DEMONSTRATIONS.

1177 B.C.: The Year Civilization Collapsed (Turning Points in Ancient History) – A compelling combination of narrative and the latest scholarship, 1177 B.C. sheds new light on the complex ties that gave rise to, and ultimately destroyed, the flourishing civilizations of the Late Bronze Age—and that set the stage for the emergence of classical Greece.

Archaeology Essentials: Theories, Methods, and Practice – This new brief version of the best-selling textbook was carefully rewritten to provide a readable and compact introduction to archaeology for those new to the field. No other book of this length can match its range of essential information and explanation. The vocabulary and the use of technical terms have been carefully reviewed. The amount of detail has been considerably reduced, and coverage of difficult or cutting-edge topics is made more accessible for students in courses that treat such subjects briefly. In particular, the coverage of archaeological theory and science has been substantially rewritten to provide a convenient overview without overwhelming the student. 220 black-and-white illustrations

The Complete Pompeii (The Complete Series) – With its lavish illustrations, covering monumental architecture and inscriptions, shops, graffiti, wall-paintings, and mosaics, plus its numerous box features ranging from theatrical entertainments to water supply, The Complete Pompeii is the ultimate resource and inspirational guide to this iconic ancient town.

The Last Days of the Incas–The epic story of the fall of the Inca Empire to Spanish conquistador Francisco Pizarro in the aftermath of a bloody civil war, and the recent discovery of the lost guerrilla capital of the Incas, Vilcabamba, by three American explorers.

Visions of Culture: An Introduction to Anthropological Theories and Theorists – I've read this book from cover to cover several times. This book made me love Herbert Spencer, and even today, I still reference the social organism every chance I get. This new edition of Jerry D. Moore's Visions of Culture presents introductory anthropology students with a brief, readable, and balanced treatment of theoretical developments in the field. (Ancient Digger's Top Pick, and favorite anthropology book

Archaeology for Dummies – This is the perfect archaeology for beginners book. Archaeology For Dummies offers a fascinating look at this intriguing field, taking readers on-site and revealing little-known details about some of the world's greatest archaeological discoveries. It explores how archaeology attempts to uncover the lives of our ancestors, examining historical dig sites around the world and explaining theories about ancient human societies. The guide also offers helpful information for readers who want to participate in an excavation themselves, as well as tips for getting the best training and where to look for jobs.

The Archaeology Book (Wonders of Creation) – Developed with three educational levels in mind, The Archaeology Book takes you on an exciting exploration of history and ancient cultures. You'll learn both the techniques of the archaeologist and the accounts of some of the richest discoveries of the Middle East that demonstrate the accuracy and historicity of the Bible.

Archaeology: Theories, Methods, and Practice (Sixth Edition) – Since its first edition, Renfrew and Bahn’s Archaeology: Theories, Methods, and Practice has been the leading academic source on what archaeologists do and how they do it. This indispensable resource is a comprehensive introduction to archaeology’s theories, methods, and practices in the field, the laboratory, and the library.

Gods, Graves & Scholars: The Story of Archaeology – C.W. Ceram visualized archeology as a wonderful combination of high adventure, romance, history and scholarship, and this book, a chronicle of man's search for his past, reads like a dramatic narrative. We travel with Heinrich Schliemann as, defying the ridicule of the learned world, he actually unearths the remains of the ancient city of Troy. We share the excitement of Lord Carnarvon and Howard Carter as they first glimpse the riches of Tutankhamen's tomb, of George Smith when he found the ancient clay tablets that contained the records of the Biblical Flood. We rediscover the ruined splendors of the Hanging Gardens of Babylon, one of the wonders of the ancient wold; of Chichen Itza, the abandoned pyramids of the Maya: and the legendary Labyrinth of tile Minotaur in Crete. Here is much of the history of civilization and the stories of the men who rediscovered it.

1920's scenes of workers at various Egyptian archaeology excavations

We read about the excavations in class, I know I once did in my Ancient Egyptian History class,  however the words of our textbooks describing Howard Carter and his discoveries can hardly paint as vivid a picture of history like this silent documentary does.

Today, 6000 years of collections are being assembled in the Met Museum in order for researchers to further their study and knowledge of the grand civilization in the Valley of the Nile.

As you can see by the video above, the process of removing the earth from the site in the 1920's is not so far removed from the way in which we approach it today. There's an assembly line of workmen, who are in charge of a native foreman and sub-foreman, who ensure the line continues to move in an orderly fashion.

The turieh, or Egyptian hoe, is used to dislodge the material and to fill the small, light baskets in which it is carried to the cars.

Instead of using our trusty water bottles or canteens, women bring jars of water, and mules would carry in water in goatskin.

While the workers weren't finding treasures like Egyptian jewelry, they were finding hoards of jars filled with salt, linen, and powders in the process of mummification. They also uncovered a 3000 year old coffin, which is waxed to preserve its surface decoration.

Watch the entire silent documentary above to see how the process of uncovering archaeological artifacts has changed.

Archaeologists Believe Christians Influenced Mecca

A new discovery in Yemen may prove that a Christian church existed there and influenced Mecca around the time of the prophet Muhammad, the Daily Mail reports. Paul Yule, an archaeologist from Germany, found the stone carving of a Christian figure in the city of Zafar and dated it to about 530AD. He says evidence from other sites in Zafar indicate that it was home to a vast Arab tribal confederation that ruled even Mecca, about 581 miles to the north.

The multicultural confederation—home to Arabs, Jews, and Christians—flourished between the 3rd and 5th centuries and managed the influential port of Aden in southern Yemen, says Yule. But tensions over the advance of Christianity led Arab kings to attack a Christian colony in the Saudi Arabian city of Najran—sparking a holy war with Byzantines and Africans that ended with the triumph of Islam in the 7th century, reports Der Spiegel. As for the stone figure, Yule says it probably depicts a descendant of Africans who arrived in 525AD to spread Christianity.

Source: Newser

Wall Collapses at Pompeii

Philip Pullella

Part of the wall of a house in the ancient city of Pompeii collapsed on Friday, raising fresh concerns about the state of one of the world's most treasured archaeological sites.

Officials said the wall was part of a 2,000-year-old house on the Vicolo del Modesto, in a section of the site that had already been declared off limits to the public for safety reasons.

About two square metres (yards) of the wall were involved in the collapse, which occurred after heavy rain storms in most of southern Italy.

The street where the collapse took place is located in an area of the dig that came to light in excavations in the 19th century.

Ancient Pompeii, which is a UNESCO World Heritage site, was frozen in time when Mount Vesuvius erupted in 79 AD, burying inhabitants alive and preserving their homes.

It has been the scene of a string of collapses in recent years, sparking international worry about the decay and perilous condition of the site. There were at least two serious collapses in 2011 and four in 2010.

The most serious was in 2010 when part of the "House of the Gladiators" - once used by gladiators to train before combat - crumbled.

Source: Reuters

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Book Review: The Lost Worlds of Ancient America

This is not another metaphysically inspired adventure saga, based on The Lost Worlds of Ancient America. This book is meant to challenge your prior knowledge of the past; especially where academia based in faith is concerned. The author Frank Joseph urges readers to use their scientific mind to evaluate the information objectively, as this approach, as Joseph describes, is missing from Orthodox scholarship.

When I read books I always look for an angle, and needless to say, one always exists. This book is different. There’s a lesson to be learned, not just from the ancient artifacts that have turned up in the most unforeseen places, but in the presentation. It was Joseph’s intention and his hope that The Lost Worlds of the Ancient America would be…….

 “a catalyst for a new kind of research, free from the narrow-mindedness an academic mind-set that have so far hobbled the healthy growth of archaeology in our country.”

I’m not going to give you longwinded synopsis on the examinations of these ancient worlds, but I will wet your appetite a bit and tell you that you will be surprised. As many of you already know, I will be making my way to Tennessee this summer to teach. Imagine my surprise and delight to hear that the history we associate most with Tennessee, that being the Civil Rights movement is missing a few links. Imagine this movement being tied to a 1st century AD stone discovered in 1889. The Bat Creek Stone was discovered in an undisturbed grave mound and it was initially believed to contain Phoenician characters instead of Paleo-Indian. It gets even better. It is now believed that the characters carved in the stone were written in Hebrew.

At this point I was scratching my head. How did a 1st century stone, written in Hebrew, makes its way into the Americas, and who did it really belong to? Who wrote it and why? Archaeologists Mainfort and Kwas, who initially contested the Hebrew inscription, later conceded that is was Hebrew but the Freemasons carved the characters. For those of you Freemason and Knight’s Templar enthusiasts like myself you’ll agree that both “secret orders”, if you want to call them that, had a connection financially to the Jews. Mainfort and Kwas' judgment is not without merit in my opinion. This is but one story from The Lost Worlds of the Ancient America and it certainly challenged everything I knew, and studied, about American Jews and when they arrived here.

No matter if you’re reading about a Minoan Pendant discovered in Ohio to Anasazi Chocolate, this book will present some of the most surprising and compelling evidence of ancient cultures and advanced technologies that rival even days most complicated of machinery. When I mention evidence I do not mean that the author is trying to sway your opinion in an entirely new direction. Frank Joseph is attempting to give you the tools to have a new perspective, as opposed to basing everything you know, and seem to believe, about a particular subject on the censored history books you’ve previously read in school.

The Lost Worlds of the Ancient America is an easy read, it’s descriptive, simple in its scientific terminology, and there is just the right amount of visuals to spark your interest. It was a pleasure learning something entirely new, and trust me, with my head buried in archaeology and anthropology books for the past couple of years, it's a pleasant surprise to read about a subject, which has been presented in an entirely new light.

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This book was presented to me by New Page Books, a division of The Career Press. I did not receive monetary compensation for my review. All opinions are mine.

Lascaux Cave: Deciphering the Chinese Horse

The species of animal that captured my attention in the Lascaux cave was the Third Chinese Horse. Judging from the anatomical positioning of the limbs and the contours of the mane and thigh region, I am positive that the animal can be contributed to the equine family. However, I do not believe this animal in an ordinary horse, but possibly a wild hybrid or zebra. The problem is that zebras evolved in Africa and they are typically not the type of species roaming around France. Furthermore, the website designates this species as a Chinese Horse. I grew up with horses and my extensive knowledge of the species leads me to believe that this creature did not evolve in China. The Chinese Horse is more of a myth associated with the Samurai than an actual breed. There are Chinese horses like the Mongolian ponies, which have a likeness to the Third Chinese Horse painting at Lascaux cave, but the evolutionary time frame is completely inaccurate.

The Third Chinese Horse is located in the Axial Gallery on the right wall and is included with the Panel of Chinese Horses. The panel is located to the right of the Panel of the Falling Cow and The Red Panel. There are three Chinese Horses in total, one red cow facing left with the First Chinese Horse posterior to its rump, and another red cow appears to be upside down, located overhead the Third and Second Chinese Horses. Oddly, the Black Stag, which appears to be a reindeer, seems out of place with its curling antlers and coloration. There are also eleven dots below the finished stag, which are clearly some type of ideogram. There are twelve months in a year, but on the eleventh month, some type of ceremony or hunt must have taken place.

The Axial Gallery is inaccessible to individuals unless they know exactly where particular panels are located. The people who created the panel on the right wall must have realized this, which indicates that the scene was meant to represent a religious ceremony or a type of hunting magic. The horse is nestled behind another prehistoric equine and they are both facing the right direction. A red cow is facing left and appears to be in stride, as well as the Black Stag, that appears to be trotting. All the animals depicted in this panel have several characteristics in common. They are all quadrupeds, mammals with hooves, vegetarian, and they all require a certain amount of speed to escape predators, with the exception of the cow. The red cow is an interesting addition to this panel. Indians considered the red cow to be sacred and historically used its excrements for ritual purification. This is similar to the Hebrew Bible, which describes the ashes of a “red heifer” being used for purification (Hebrew Bible Num. 19:2). This animal may have been used in the same context during the Paleolithic.

The Third Chinese Horse does exhibit some remarkable contours as far as coloration and muscle exposure. There are thick yellow and black stripes, which reach from the back to the withers. There is also a dark coloration from the loins to the stifle and some spotting on the thighs, rump, and gaskin. This is not typical of the breed standard rumored to exist over 17,000 years ago, however DNA evidence is now suggesting otherwise. Several professors from the University of York have analyzed horse remains from several species originating in Europe and Asia. The gene that codes for the spotted horse was present over 35,000 years ago. Furthermore, the colors we see in Lascaux including the black and bay colors are clearly representative of the prehistoric species that existed during the completion of these paintings (Swift, 2011). The Third Chinese Horse is a realistic portrayal of the spotted equine during the Paleolithic period but there are some proportions on the spotted equine that are represented abstractly, or rather inaccurately, including the barrel. The barrel of a spotted horse tapers off near the elbow of the horse, and in the Lascaux cave depiction the barrel is tapered near the stifle. Every spotted horse is different of course, but anatomically this is how spotted horses appear today, and most likely appeared during the Paleolithic.

Moreover, the tail is decoratively braided high on the croup and there appears to be a tail bandage located posterior to the mid-thigh, leading me to believe this may have been an Arabian or Stallion. These horse breeds typically have tails, which reach higher on the croup, thus allowing for more flexibility in hairstyles and decorations, so the bandage makes sense in that aspect. The Romans, Greeks, and Native Americans applied tail bandages on long trips and during cavalry wars to prevent the tail from snagging on weapons. It also allowed the horse to stay cool on long marches during the hotter months.

The Third Chinese Horse is facing in the right direction. Its ears are pointed in one direction and its tail is down. This is extremely significant behavior. Horse’s ears always point in the direction in which they are paying attention to. It is not unusual for a horse to have one ear facing back and one facing forwards because their eyes allow them to look in two different locals. The Third Chinese Horse in looking forward and appears to be escaping an attack. There are two feathered arrows painted on the wall, only a few inches away from plunging into the animal. Consequently, it could represent a horse being used to trample another animal during a hunting party. We see this with Native Americans during Buffalo hunts, yet the horses do have riders, and they are more so used to coral the buffalo. The Chinese Horse is clearly a representation of power over another species using agility and intelligence.

The Upper Paleolithic peoples who painted in the Lascaux cave had a common ideology about hunting magic or religion. The culture was engrossed in ritual symbolism, and by creating some of these symbolic images, they believed that what they drew on the walls was the result of their endeavors, and not what they hoped would happen. It was a prediction in a sense, made true by writing it down and drawing it out. At Altamira in Spain, the bulls are strategically painted on the contours of the wall, making it seem like the bulls are alive. We see these parallels in artistic expression in The Great Hall of Bulls at Lascaux. The idea behind this, and the reason why only some Upper Paleolithic peoples painted on cave walls, is because there was a shared culture between them. This act of expression may not have permeated to other cultures, and if it did, their shared knowledge allowed them to produce artwork using different materials. This artwork may or may not have survived, which explains why we do not have archaeological evidence to prove geographical diffusion of particular styles of art.

It is clear to me, after viewing the cave art in Lascaux that people during the Upper Paleolithic moved about and spread out over the geographical landscape in caves, outside shelters, as well as open-air camps. The environment was exploited in various ways during the Upper Paleolithic because the amount of resources available to some cultures was vast. We find many examples of cave paintings in both France and Spain because the Upper Paleolithic people who made them chose to go underground, possibly to make them inaccessible to others. In China, Europe, and Africa, the paintings may have just disappeared, especially if they were susceptible to earth’s elements. Moreover, other cultures may have been invested more time in portable art, which has yet to be discovered.  

Take a virtual tour of Lascaux cave

A Child’s Visit to Stonehenge Inspired a Quest for Knowledge About Man and God

As a young girl I visited Stonehenge with my family and I remember asking my uncle with great excitement did god build all this just for us to play on? My uncle (who was an academic at Southhampton University) barked back at me ‘don’t be silly girl this is a product of man’s inquiring mind’. I remember just standing there in bewilderment as I couldn’t begin to fathom that man and not god had built this incredible playground as I saw it back then. The visit was in 1974 a few years before the general public’s direct access was understandably restricted to stop erosion and vandalism but luckily for me I was able to run around this huge and imposing cromlech freely touching and hugging and climbing all over it. That precious experience had a profound influence on me as it ignited a curiosity about history and archaeology and also about religion and the question of 'is there a god' that has never left me and it all started with that innocent question about whether god built Stonehenge.

I soon learnt the true history and purpose of Stonehenge. These ruins (which themselves are awe inspiring) are the remains of a circle of upright stones that was constructed anywhere from 3000 BC to 2000 BC. The stones were aligned almost perfectly with the sunrise on the summer solstice and it is almost certain that Stonehenge was built as a sacred place of worship. It is thought that the Neolithic people of Britain began this massive undertaking by using deer antlers as picks to dig a circular ditch. The diameter of the circle is 320 feet (97.5 meters) and the ditch itself is 20 feet (6m) wide and 7 feet (2.1m) deep. Even though Stonehenge has been the focus of archaeological investigations since the 17th century still more is being discovered about it even today. In 2011 using the latest geophysical imaging techniques two previously undiscovered pits were found which suggest that the site was already being used as an ancient place of ritual before Stonehenge was constructed which is more than 5,000 years ago.

For me Stonehenge symbolises so much about the human journey to find knowledge and self-understanding. A journey of championing ignorance and superstition through discovering the workings of our world and mastering our intellect. We have travelled so far and yet we are so fortunate to have such a rich archeological history to allow us to stay connected to our origins and the marvel of the natural world. I still remember driving away from Stonehenge and not taking my eyes off it until I could no longer see it. I remember that feeling of absolute awe and enchantment and even though as an adult I have a first principle understanding of what is god places like Stonehenge will always inspire that primal awe and wonder in children and adults alike - thank god!

Author Bio: Fran splits her time between work, travel and giving back to the internet through numerous article pages. She enjoys discovering our world and the ceaseless journey of ideas. Fran finds herself increasingly reading biologist Jeremy Griffith's ideas presented at World Transformation which contains rational, biological explanations to the deeper questions.

Road Trip to the Ancient Pueblos In Flagstaff, Arizona

© Allison Carlton 

Some of the most interesting archaeological sites I studied in Archaeology Theory and Method last semester was that of the Pueblos. The Pueblos constructed some of the most fascinating and complex building structures in history in my opinion.

The buildings were typically constructed out of stone walls and clay mortar with wooden support beams. Many pueblos were multi-level, forcing the residents to use ladders to reach the roofs where they could then enter the rooms through the ceilings.

Allison Bard from Traveling Bard is lucky enough to have direct access to this ancient world of multilevel homes and outbuildings. She recently took a self guided tour within Wupatki National Monument - roughly 30 miles outside of the city – which allows you to visit five prehistoric pueblos that are some of the finest preserved in the world.

Enjoy Ride the Road to Ruins from our friend Allison Carlton

Madagascar Unmasked and Mystifying

© WildJunket

See, now this is why I love Twitter. It’s amazing, the kind of people you can meet and the places they’ve been around the country.

This particular shot of a dugout boat in Madagascar was taken by Nellie Huang, the founder of WildJunket. As a professional travel writer, she travels around the world with her notebook and camera in hand, to seek out adventurous and quirky corners.

Madagascar is the world's fourth largest island after Greenland, New Guinea, and Borneo. The island of Madagascar broke away from the African continent 165 million years ago. The first settlers of Madagascar were of African and Asian origin, and 18 separate ethnic groups emerged, derived from an African and Malayo-Indonesian mixture. About 80% of the animals found in Madagascar do not exist anywhere else on Earth.

Nellie Huang just visited the island of Madagascar and here’s a snippet from her travelogue,

Over the past few days, we experienced the wilderness of Madagascar – sleeping in the forest, watching lemurs and chameleons in their natural habitat and flowing down rivers on dugout canoes. In the Kirindy forest, we saw the adorable grey mouse lemur upclose and personal and watched sifakas leap from one tree to another. At the Tsingy de Bemahara, we climbed sharp karst rock faces to get a awestriking view of the jungle from above. Back in the town of Belo-sur-Tsiribihina, we wandered through the colorful and bustling central market, taking in Malagasy culture. By the time we got to Morondava, we were thrilled to be feasting on cheap and delicious seafood at Chez Maggie.

Read more: Madagascar Unmasked: Wildlife, Nature and Beautiful People

Thanks Nellie Huang from Wild Junket

More Madagascar articles:

Dinosaurs in Madagascar

14 Ancient Wonders of the World

The ancient wonders of the world list is always being updated as new modern marvels rival ancient architecture. New steel bridges and skyscrapers reaching amazing heights are quite an accomplishment. Yet, I still believe that the ancient structures that were included in the original world wonder’s list still deserve a spot there.

The Great Pyramid of Giza

Image Source

Dating to the 2nd Century, the Pyramid of Giza (also known as the Pyramid of Khufu and Pyramid of Cheops) is the only original Wonder of the World still left standing. "Callimachus of Cyrene (305BC-240BC), Chief Librarian of the Alexandria Museum, wrote "A Collection of Wonders around the World." According to the original list, the Pyramid of Giza was one of the first added to the list. The pyramid is located in the city of Giza and is today a part of the greater Cairo area of Egypt.

Newgrange

Image Source

Newgrange is over 5,000 years old and according to Carbon-14 dates, it is more than 500 years older than the Great Pyramid of Giza in Egypt, and predates Stonehenge trilithons by about 1,000 years.

The Great Wall of China

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The Great Wall was initially built in sections for protection against different states. The sections were then fused in 221-206 BC during the Qin dynasty. The wall served its purpose well up until the time when the dynasty was weak from within the walls. Both the Mongols and Manchurians were able to invade due to the weakness and poverty of the people, not the wall itself. It wasn't until 1368-1644 that the wall started to appear as it looks today.

Mount Everest

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Mount Everest is located at the snowy peak of the Himalayas in Nepal, which stands on the border of Tibet. Mount Everest is the highest mountain in the world reaching heights of 29,028 ft. The atmospheric pressure at the top of Everest is about a third of sea level pressure, implicating that there is about a third as much oxygen available to breathe as at sea level. Individuals that have reached the top have often said this was the closest to God they would ever be.

The Colosseum

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The Colosseum is the most famous monument in Ancient Rome. The original name was the Flavian Amphitheatre. Construction of the site was originally started between 70-76 AD and was completed in 80 AD. Its name was derived from a huge statue depicting Nero, essentially a colossus of him. The first celebration of the opening consisted of 100 days worth of games including 50,000 spectators that crammed into the structure.

The Throne of Persepolis

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Founded in the 6th Century BC by the kings of the First Persian Empire, Persepolis is located 60 km northeast of Shiraz in Iran. The site was built to serve as a ceremonial and spiritual capital of the Persian Empire. The two staircases connect to a Gate of All Nations carved with various symbols from Armenians, Egyptians, Medians, and many others. Persepolis continued to flourish until 330 BC when Alexander the Great was said to set it on fire. The city of Persepolis was declared a World Heritage Site by the UNESCO in 1979.

Borobudur Temple

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Borobudur Temple is located at the Borobudur District, South of Magelang, and Central Java. Based on the inscription dating back to 842 AD, Casparis suggested that Borobudur was at one time a place for spiritual worship. The closed structure of the temple describes of a certain type of closed off world.

Lake Baikal

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It is said that this lake is 25 million years old-the oldest lake on the planet. It is also the deepest lake, holding more water than all of North America's Great Lakes combined. Its marine life is composed of more than 1,500 animal species and 1,000 plant species. Baikal is not like any other lake on the planet in that it has oxygen- rich water that circulates from the surface to the deepest parts, implying geothermal vents. To help the effort, UNESCO has recommended that the lake and its watershed be designated a World Heritage Site.

Palau

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Palau's coral reefs began to grow millions of years ago when coral polyps colonized submerged volcanic mountains. There is said to be over 700 assorted species of corals and 1500 classes of fish making it the most diverse reef on the planet.

The Catacombs of Kom el Shoqafa

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The Catacombs of Kom el Shoqafa, dating back to the 1st century AD, are located in one of my favorite cities on earth Alexandria, Egypt. It was a meeting place for people with common goals and tradition rather than war and destruction. Due to earthquakes and construction, the catacombs had been destroyed or obstructed. It wasn't until 1900 that by accident, a donkey fell through a hole in the ground and into the very heart of the structure.

The Grand Canyon

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The Grand Canyon of the Colorado River is the largest gorge in the world-a 290-mile-long gash across the face of the Colorado Plateau in northern Arizona. Several distinct layers of sandstone, limestone, and shale speak of the advance and retreat of ancient seas, the building up and wearing down of mountains, the tortuous of rivers over 600 million years. It's been a revered spiritual site for Native Indians and a subject of mass speculation due to the age of the great structure.

Machu Picchu

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Machu Picchu was built around the year 1460, but deserted as an official site of the Inca Empire. Machu Picchu is a Pre-Colombian Inca civilization located 2,400 meters above sea level and it's situated on a mountain crest above the Urubamba Valley in Peru. It's often referred to as "The Lost City of the Incas" and is one of the most recognizable symbols of the Inca Empire.

The Temple of Inscriptions

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The Temple of Inscriptions is located at the eastern edge of the Rio Usumacinta Basin in the foothills of the Sierra Oriental de Chiapas at an elevation of slightly less that 3000 m. Even though the earliest occupation of the site dates to about 100 BC, it only became a population around 600 AD and all construction at the site had halted by about 800 AD.

Petra

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Petra was the capital city of Nabataeans and was dominated by a tribe of pre-Roman Arabs around the time of 6th Century BC. Despite several attempts to conquer their capital, the Nabataeans remained virtually self-regulating until the defeat of Antony and Cleopatra and the reunification of the Roman Empire by Octavian in 31 BC. In 106, the Romans finally captured Petra to mark the beginning of the decline of the city.

Social Complexity of the Ancients: A Brief Overview

The concept of isolation is among one of the most significant ideas for social complexity, in that all complex societies were never “truly isolated from each other” . If this was the case, all complex societies would or could have, adopted a similar social organization, with the exception of the people living in Shandong Province as the Dawenkou culture, mentioned as having a limited or different access to resources, therefore aiding to a slight variation in organization.

What some of these societies do have in common, evidently, is there location, approximate in distance to rivers or water resources. However, Huanghe River’s annual flooding aided in rice production, yet the peoples didn’t depend on this resource, since grain millet (tolerant of dry climates) was grown in the same area as well. In actuality, reliance of some kind on agricultural subsistence, whether millet, pigs, rice, corn, wheat, wild plants and animals, chickens, and so on, were all present.

Social Hierarchy

As evidenced in Mesopotamia, the temples which held the gods, and ziggurats, which on many occasions, state officials called home, were clearly depictive of a social hierarchy.

Erhlit’ou
 
The same can be said for the Erhlit’ou culture, as archaeological evidence consisting of large abodes, middle sized lodging, and small villages, suggesting an administrative hierarchy. Albeit, there’s no written record to suggest this was the actual organization of the site.

Angang

 

Angang exhibited another settlement pattern; however, extensive looting has destroyed much of the evidence. What is evident is that there was a central palace, and several specialty workshops for prized items such as jade, bone, and bronze. If there were craftsmen who made these items then there had to be a central area for them to be accommodated. Although, the manufacture of these particular items was watched closely, so it is possible the individuals who made them resided within the walls of the palace.

Crete

 

The settlement patterns in Crete were a bit more perplexing considering the peoples were living in small villages without clear evidence for political authority extending beyond the village scale.

At the Palace at Knossos, there’s a series of rooms holding storage jars and documents, as well as a room for rituals by gods and goddesses. A throne room is present at Knossos, however there’s no clear evidence of the type of political unit once present. Furthermore, even the villas situated on the outskirts of Knossos have been rumored to be part of agricultural units, but this still does not indicate a single ruler of the area. The Goddess figurine from Knossos is depicted in artwork elsewhere in Crete and at Knossos and probably represents an important early divinity, similar to the Sumerian relation of king and gods.

Uruk


Historians believe priests and priestesses of several early city-states played an essential role in ruling in Uruk. Sumerians believed kings derived their power from the gods, and in so doing, were agents of the gods. Therefore, ruling power was primarily in the hands of kings.

Shang



Wenke and Olszewski (2007) mentioned that archaeological evident and written documents after the Shang period indicate that Shang society was headed by a king, who ruled through hierarchically arranged nobility (p 446). This is further explained by the relationship between the king and Di (god), mirrored by relationships between the king and his living servants and vassals: as the king served Di, so living people served the king.

Burials

The Chinese shared the custom of burials with Mesopotamia, as seen at the Royal Tombs of Ur. Not only were chariots and rice buried with the dead, but ruler’s wives, servants, guards, and other staffs were present as well, to aid him in the afterlife. Oddly, this custom wasn’t widely adhered to in Egypt, as we tend to see more material items: pottery, gold, necklaces, clothing, etc., in the tombs of Pharaohs.

Burials in eastern Crete contained valuable times like gold diadems and other forms of personal adornment. Consequently, the M10 Tomb at Dawenkou exhibited vessels and pig bones from feasting during funerary activities, although the scraps from swine don’t seem like an offering, rather an individual’s attempt to climb the social ladder while erasing someone’s past. Throwing out the garbage per se. Of course, this is not what it seems.

Final Thought

China's political authority consisted of small polities which didn’t span the vast areas like its counterparts in Mesopotamia. Like Egypt, there was evident inequality and large river valleys for trading and irrigation. However, in the case of both Egypt and China, eventually “a geographically large political unit was created. Consequently, social organization in Minoan Crete is poorly understood and within reason. There’s insufficient evidence. Like China, Egypt, and Mesopotamia, there was social inequality and some type of political authority. There were no city-states in Minoan Crete, but rather small polities like China. Authority was rumored to be in the hands of elite families and divinities, rather than one single ruler.

Sources

Bronze Artifact (Bronze two-sided mask, Late Shang Period (c. 1200-1050 B.C.)
Jiangxi Provincial Museum, Nanchang)

Uruk Period Kings

The Uruk Period lasted from 4100-3000 B.C. (time frame not set in stone) and exemplified the dawn of civilization and city-state growth. New cities emerged; arts and crafts became more advanced; social hierarchies were created and molded by system administrators; writing and documenting trade transactions took place on cuneiform; and warfare stretched the Mesopotamian landscapes as city states popped up around the Euphrates and Tigris rivers.

The landscape during the Uruk Period was dominated by agricultural growth, as cities competed for resources and warfare and hostilities sparked from disputes over water rights and property. Mudbrick walls were constructed around the developing and urbanizing cities in order to cut tensions. Ziggurats were created by the Uruk kings to protect the people and house the gods. The question remains, however, were there actual kings during the Uruk Period?

The answer is yes, albeit the evidence suggests that kings were more mythological in nature. After priests, who held economic and political powers, still retaining their religious mystique of course, Uruk period kings emerged as dual rulers in an effort to combat warfare and forge sociocultural bonds with their people.

Historians believe priests and priestesses of several early city-states played an essential role in ruling (Spielvogel 2009). Sumerians, however, believed kings derived their power from the gods, and in so doing, were agents of the gods. Therefore, ruling power was primarily in the hands of kings.

“You in your judgment, you are the son of Anu [god of the sky]; your commands, like the word of a god, cannot be reversed; your words, like rain pouring down from heaven, are without number” (Spielvogel 2009). This quote was recited by one being as a petition to his king. Is there evidence for this event? There’s only one documented source available for this meeting, however there’s also no archaeological records to dispute this actually occurred.

Looking at the archaeological record of Mesopotamia, there is at least one centrally located temple that housed the deities or deity who watched over the community. Each centrally located temple is controlled by a priest who manages the deity’s wealth. These priests appear to have been the most prominent political and economic forces in early Mesopotamian communities (Bulliet et al. 2008:36-37). Were they the Uruk kings?

The kings most often mentioned during the Uruk period are regarded as antediluvian; relating to the period before the flood described in the Bible. A problem arises, however. These mythological kings, some of which ruled for over 60,000 years, have very little support for their actual existence, with the exception of faith. Furthermore, it’s quite difficult to place certain kings with the time frame of the Uruk period since all were regarded as existing prior to 2900 B.C. and many were mythological and undocumented.

Sumerian King List

The only documented antediluvian kings mentioned in text, possibly reigning during the Uruk period or shortly thereafter, are mentioned in an ancient Sumerian King list. The list, mentioned in I Studied Inscriptions from Before the Flood": Ancient Near Eastern Literary, and Linguistic Approaches to Genesis 1-11, includes Alulim of Eridu, Alalgar of Eridu, Enmenluanna of Badtibiria, Enmengalanna of Badtibira, Dumanzi of Badtibira, Ensipazianna of Larak, Enmeduranki of Sippar, Ubar-Tutu of Shuruppak, and the Sumerian flood-hero Ziusudra (Xisuthros) of Shurappak (1994). There’s another list, however, pertaining to Uruk, published by J.J.A. van Dijk. Hess and Tsumura (1994) noted Dijk’s list includes seven antediluvian kings including (Ajalu= Alulim of Enmeduranki) and seven antediluvian sages, presumed to have lived under these kings: U-An, U-An dugga, Enmedugga, Enmegalamma, Enmebulugga, An-Enlilda, and Utuabzu (p. 225).

The “Lugar” or “Big Man”, mentioned by Kramer (1963), emerged in Sumerian cities during the third millennium B.C.E. (p.74). It’s not clear as to why these regent rulers appeared, however with the ongoing conflict occurring between city-states for water, food, and other resources, there’s seems to have been a need for control, and indeed there was. Pressures from (Kramer [1963] barbaric peoples from the east and west of Sumer increased), therefore military leadership became a pressing need. The “Big Man” took his rightful superior place.

The kings led armies, built city walls and defenses, protected people against crime, supervised public works projects, initiated legislation, provided courts, and organized workers for irrigation projects, on which Mesopotamia agriculture depended (Spielvogel 2009 ). The Sumerian priest-kings received advice from a general assembly made up of free men. The army, government bureaucracy, and the priests and priestesses all aided the  Uruk kings in their rule. By about 3000 B. C., they took their place as permanent kings (Kramer 1963). As time went by, the king’s power rivaled that of the priesthood. Why? The temples started to grow weaker in a sense as palaces were the center for political and economic assemblies. Furthermore, the army now followed the rule of the king.

So are we to assume that priests just evolved into kings? Text based evidence seems to support this notion. However, if we assume, or rather deny the flood or mythological kings prior to the flood, how does this explain the archaeological evidence at Uruk discovered in the 1920s?



In 1929, Leonard Woolley discovered a clay deposit laid down by the legendary Great Flood. “On top of this deposit was the stratum that contained the famous Royal Tombs of Ur, which belong to the period called Early Dynastic III (c.2600-2400 BCE); underneath it was a settlement from what is called the Late Ubaid period, which ended in c.3100” (Woolley 1934). What exactly does this have to do with the Uruk Period? The following evidence may substantiate the existence of a king who founded the First Dynasty.

In Ur: Royal Inscr. 268 was published the inscription which I should now transcribe nin-TUR nin; dam mes-an-ni-pdd-da; i.e. 'the lady NIN-TUR^, wife of Mesannipadda' ; from a seal (U. 8981) found loose in the stratum between the Sargonid and the older part of the cemetery. Mesannipadda is naturally assumed to be the king of that name who founded the First Dynasty. In 1928/9 it appeared that a stratum of rubbish was laid down above the older cemetery during (probably) the First Dynasty. In 1929/30 the stratum SIS I was discovered and named, and determined by the excavator to be, together with SIS II, continuous with the dividing stratum that elsewhere divides the lower cemetery from the upper. In SIS I was a seal-impression containing the inscription \ine\s-an-ni-pdd-da; lugal kis^'; dam-nu-gig'^ [Woolley 1994:312].

Stele of Vultures

One of the earliest archaeological depictions of warfare in Mesopotamia was on the Stele of Vultures, kept in the Louvre, dating to the Early Dynastic III (2600-2330 BC) during the reign of Eannatum, King of Lagash (Pollock 1999). Indeed, the stele date doesn’t fall in the time frame of the Uruk Period, however it does allude to patron deities who were heavily involved in battle when his city was threatened. Pollock (1999) noted King Eannatum’s reign falls in the 1^st Dynasty of Lagash, following the 2^nd Dynasty of Uruk, one ponders if there was such a parallel to warfare led by divine kings and nature of deities during the Uruk Period (p. 184). Indeed there is.


The Mask of Warka may be one of the most fascinating archaeological finds of the Uruk period, dating to 3100 B.C. Jan Russell (2008) that the Mask of Warka is believed to be the world's oldest known naturalistic sculpture of a human face (p.86). Even more fascinating is the fact the face is off a women, and not just any women, Inanna.

The kingship of Sumer is given to Ninisinna, otherwise known as Inanna, the daughter of An, documented in the Lipit Ishtar Code. Inanna is often depicted as a fickle person who first attracts men and then rejects them, a richly dressed goddess, or as a naked woman (Collins 1994). Did Uruk period kings exist? Let’s look at some archaeological evidence.

Ward (1910) noted a cylindrical seal kept at the British Museum, dating about 3000 B.C Uruk Period, clearly depicts a 'priest-king', Bin-Gur-Akhi, King of Erech. The seal reads “To Bin-Gur-Akhi, King of Uruk; the scribe; thy servant”. This is indeed one of the most valuable seals The British Museum has ever procured (p. 21).

The Royal Tombs of Ur discovered by Leonard Woolley have yielded evidence of kings dated to 2600 B.C. The most complete of the burials was that of Pu-abi, a high ranking woman. Her name is known because a cylinder seal was found in the tomb and is engraved with a banquet scene. It has been suggested that this indicates that the owner was female and a queen. The cuneiform inscription on this seal reads 'Pu-abi nin’, with ‘nin’ formally read as Shubad. This would be the feminine equivalent of “lugal”.

When lugal is applied to a mortal it means “queen”. A seal discovered next to Pu-abi had been an unknown person; however Woolley seems to have believed the cylinder read “A-bra-ge”, the king and husband of Pu-abi (Moorey 1977).

How does this pertain to Uruk kings? Let’s take a step back to the cylindrical seal kept at the British Museum, dating about 3000 B.C Uruk Period. The seal of the priest-king represents a new social organization in the city-states, and although warfare is missing from the seal, it doesn’t rule out the existence of kings during that time. Is this evidence that kings existed during that time? Possibly so.

Conclusion

Indeed, the existence of archaeological texts and written records are lacking for the Uruk period. However, based on the Stele of Vultures, the cylindrical piece at the British Museum, and the Mask of Warka, it is possible there could be more. Further excavation and investigation needs to take place, especially in light of the evidence found during the 1920s. If cylindrical and seal devices can be found depicting kings in warfare during the Uruk period, arguments for the existence of actual kings could be heavily changed. The seal discovered by Woolley depicting A-bra-ge dates to 3200 B.C. and clearly shows a priest-king making an offering. The Uruk period ended in 3000 B.C., so it seems anomalous, and hardly feasible, that kings should only exist 200 years after this time.

REFERENCES CITED

• Bulliet, Richard W., Pamela Kyle Crossley, Daniel R. Headrick, Lyman L. Johnson, and Steven W. Hirsch. 2008 The Earth and Its Peoples: A Global History, Volume I. Houghton Mifflin Company, Boston.
• Collins, Paul. 1994 The Sumerian goddess Inanna (3400.2200 BC). Institute of Archaeology, UCL, Los Angeles.
• Hess, Richard S. (editor) and David Toshio Tsumura (editor).1994 I Studied Inscriptions From Before The Flood: Ancient Near Eastern, Literary, and Linguistic approaches to Genesis 1-11, Volume 4. Einsenbrauns, Inc. Winona Lake.
• Kramer, Samuel N. 1963 The Sumerians: their history, culture, and character. University of Chicago Press, Chicago.
• Moorey, P.R.S 1977 What do we know about the people buried in the Royal Cemetery? Penn Museum Documents and Publication. Accessed February 18, 2011.
• Pollock, Susan. 1999 Ancient Mesopotamia. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.
• Russell, Jan, J. (editor). 2008 They Lived to Tell the Tale: True Stories of Modern Adventure from the Adventurers Club. The Explorers Club. Lyon’s Press, Guilford.
• Spielvogel, Jackson J. 2009 Western Civilization, Volume 1: To 1715, Seventh Edition. Thomson Higher Education. Belmont.
• Ward, William, H. 1910 The Seal Cylinders of Western Asia. Carnegie Institute of Washington, Washington D.C.
• Woolley, C.L. 1934 Ur Excavations: The Royal Cemetery. A Report on the Predynastic and Sargonid Graves Excavated Between 1926 and 1931, Volume II. British Museum and The University of Pennyslyvania. Oxford University Press, London.
• Stele of Vultures picture.
• Mask of Warka picture. BBC
• Leonard Woolley
• Royal Tomb photo © Answers in Genesis
• Sumerian King List photo © Christina Mina

Shaw vs. Shakespeare: Finest Historical Educational Film Ever Made

This is the first film in Barnes' 'Shaw vs. Shakespeare' series, considered by experts to be among the finest educational films ever made. Here is wonderful introduction to Barnes as an insightful and witty interpreter of Shakespeare on film, the opening film of the triptych focusing on George Bernard Shaw’s belief that, although Shakespeare’s play was superior to his own, the treatment of the character of Caesar was not. Shaw, as written by Barnes, prefers a Caesar whose strength-of-purpose is more in keeping with a conqueror, than Shakespeare’s pessimistic, indecisive leader. Starring Donald Moffat, Richard Kiley, and Susan Grossman.