Uruk Period Kings

The Uruk Period lasted from 4100-3000 B.C. (time frame not set in stone) and exemplified the dawn of civilization and city-state growth. New cities emerged; arts and crafts became more advanced; social hierarchies were created and molded by system administrators; writing and documenting trade transactions took place on cuneiform; and warfare stretched the Mesopotamian landscapes as city states popped up around the Euphrates and Tigris rivers.

The landscape during the Uruk Period was dominated by agricultural growth, as cities competed for resources and warfare and hostilities sparked from disputes over water rights and property. Mudbrick walls were constructed around the developing and urbanizing cities in order to cut tensions. Ziggurats were created by the Uruk kings to protect the people and house the gods. The question remains, however, were there actual kings during the Uruk Period?

The answer is yes, albeit the evidence suggests that kings were more mythological in nature. After priests, who held economic and political powers, still retaining their religious mystique of course, Uruk period kings emerged as dual rulers in an effort to combat warfare and forge sociocultural bonds with their people.

Historians believe priests and priestesses of several early city-states played an essential role in ruling (Spielvogel 2009). Sumerians, however, believed kings derived their power from the gods, and in so doing, were agents of the gods. Therefore, ruling power was primarily in the hands of kings.

“You in your judgment, you are the son of Anu [god of the sky]; your commands, like the word of a god, cannot be reversed; your words, like rain pouring down from heaven, are without number” (Spielvogel 2009). This quote was recited by one being as a petition to his king. Is there evidence for this event? There’s only one documented source available for this meeting, however there’s also no archaeological records to dispute this actually occurred.

Looking at the archaeological record of Mesopotamia, there is at least one centrally located temple that housed the deities or deity who watched over the community. Each centrally located temple is controlled by a priest who manages the deity’s wealth. These priests appear to have been the most prominent political and economic forces in early Mesopotamian communities (Bulliet et al. 2008:36-37). Were they the Uruk kings?

The kings most often mentioned during the Uruk period are regarded as antediluvian; relating to the period before the flood described in the Bible. A problem arises, however. These mythological kings, some of which ruled for over 60,000 years, have very little support for their actual existence, with the exception of faith. Furthermore, it’s quite difficult to place certain kings with the time frame of the Uruk period since all were regarded as existing prior to 2900 B.C. and many were mythological and undocumented.

Sumerian King List

The only documented antediluvian kings mentioned in text, possibly reigning during the Uruk period or shortly thereafter, are mentioned in an ancient Sumerian King list. The list, mentioned in I Studied Inscriptions from Before the Flood": Ancient Near Eastern Literary, and Linguistic Approaches to Genesis 1-11, includes Alulim of Eridu, Alalgar of Eridu, Enmenluanna of Badtibiria, Enmengalanna of Badtibira, Dumanzi of Badtibira, Ensipazianna of Larak, Enmeduranki of Sippar, Ubar-Tutu of Shuruppak, and the Sumerian flood-hero Ziusudra (Xisuthros) of Shurappak (1994). There’s another list, however, pertaining to Uruk, published by J.J.A. van Dijk. Hess and Tsumura (1994) noted Dijk’s list includes seven antediluvian kings including (Ajalu= Alulim of Enmeduranki) and seven antediluvian sages, presumed to have lived under these kings: U-An, U-An dugga, Enmedugga, Enmegalamma, Enmebulugga, An-Enlilda, and Utuabzu (p. 225).

The “Lugar” or “Big Man”, mentioned by Kramer (1963), emerged in Sumerian cities during the third millennium B.C.E. (p.74). It’s not clear as to why these regent rulers appeared, however with the ongoing conflict occurring between city-states for water, food, and other resources, there’s seems to have been a need for control, and indeed there was. Pressures from (Kramer [1963] barbaric peoples from the east and west of Sumer increased), therefore military leadership became a pressing need. The “Big Man” took his rightful superior place.

The kings led armies, built city walls and defenses, protected people against crime, supervised public works projects, initiated legislation, provided courts, and organized workers for irrigation projects, on which Mesopotamia agriculture depended (Spielvogel 2009 ). The Sumerian priest-kings received advice from a general assembly made up of free men. The army, government bureaucracy, and the priests and priestesses all aided the  Uruk kings in their rule. By about 3000 B. C., they took their place as permanent kings (Kramer 1963). As time went by, the king’s power rivaled that of the priesthood. Why? The temples started to grow weaker in a sense as palaces were the center for political and economic assemblies. Furthermore, the army now followed the rule of the king.

So are we to assume that priests just evolved into kings? Text based evidence seems to support this notion. However, if we assume, or rather deny the flood or mythological kings prior to the flood, how does this explain the archaeological evidence at Uruk discovered in the 1920s?



In 1929, Leonard Woolley discovered a clay deposit laid down by the legendary Great Flood. “On top of this deposit was the stratum that contained the famous Royal Tombs of Ur, which belong to the period called Early Dynastic III (c.2600-2400 BCE); underneath it was a settlement from what is called the Late Ubaid period, which ended in c.3100” (Woolley 1934). What exactly does this have to do with the Uruk Period? The following evidence may substantiate the existence of a king who founded the First Dynasty.

In Ur: Royal Inscr. 268 was published the inscription which I should now transcribe nin-TUR nin; dam mes-an-ni-pdd-da; i.e. 'the lady NIN-TUR^, wife of Mesannipadda' ; from a seal (U. 8981) found loose in the stratum between the Sargonid and the older part of the cemetery. Mesannipadda is naturally assumed to be the king of that name who founded the First Dynasty. In 1928/9 it appeared that a stratum of rubbish was laid down above the older cemetery during (probably) the First Dynasty. In 1929/30 the stratum SIS I was discovered and named, and determined by the excavator to be, together with SIS II, continuous with the dividing stratum that elsewhere divides the lower cemetery from the upper. In SIS I was a seal-impression containing the inscription \ine\s-an-ni-pdd-da; lugal kis^'; dam-nu-gig'^ [Woolley 1994:312].

Stele of Vultures

One of the earliest archaeological depictions of warfare in Mesopotamia was on the Stele of Vultures, kept in the Louvre, dating to the Early Dynastic III (2600-2330 BC) during the reign of Eannatum, King of Lagash (Pollock 1999). Indeed, the stele date doesn’t fall in the time frame of the Uruk Period, however it does allude to patron deities who were heavily involved in battle when his city was threatened. Pollock (1999) noted King Eannatum’s reign falls in the 1^st Dynasty of Lagash, following the 2^nd Dynasty of Uruk, one ponders if there was such a parallel to warfare led by divine kings and nature of deities during the Uruk Period (p. 184). Indeed there is.


The Mask of Warka may be one of the most fascinating archaeological finds of the Uruk period, dating to 3100 B.C. Jan Russell (2008) that the Mask of Warka is believed to be the world's oldest known naturalistic sculpture of a human face (p.86). Even more fascinating is the fact the face is off a women, and not just any women, Inanna.

The kingship of Sumer is given to Ninisinna, otherwise known as Inanna, the daughter of An, documented in the Lipit Ishtar Code. Inanna is often depicted as a fickle person who first attracts men and then rejects them, a richly dressed goddess, or as a naked woman (Collins 1994). Did Uruk period kings exist? Let’s look at some archaeological evidence.

Ward (1910) noted a cylindrical seal kept at the British Museum, dating about 3000 B.C Uruk Period, clearly depicts a 'priest-king', Bin-Gur-Akhi, King of Erech. The seal reads “To Bin-Gur-Akhi, King of Uruk; the scribe; thy servant”. This is indeed one of the most valuable seals The British Museum has ever procured (p. 21).

The Royal Tombs of Ur discovered by Leonard Woolley have yielded evidence of kings dated to 2600 B.C. The most complete of the burials was that of Pu-abi, a high ranking woman. Her name is known because a cylinder seal was found in the tomb and is engraved with a banquet scene. It has been suggested that this indicates that the owner was female and a queen. The cuneiform inscription on this seal reads 'Pu-abi nin’, with ‘nin’ formally read as Shubad. This would be the feminine equivalent of “lugal”.

When lugal is applied to a mortal it means “queen”. A seal discovered next to Pu-abi had been an unknown person; however Woolley seems to have believed the cylinder read “A-bra-ge”, the king and husband of Pu-abi (Moorey 1977).

How does this pertain to Uruk kings? Let’s take a step back to the cylindrical seal kept at the British Museum, dating about 3000 B.C Uruk Period. The seal of the priest-king represents a new social organization in the city-states, and although warfare is missing from the seal, it doesn’t rule out the existence of kings during that time. Is this evidence that kings existed during that time? Possibly so.

Conclusion

Indeed, the existence of archaeological texts and written records are lacking for the Uruk period. However, based on the Stele of Vultures, the cylindrical piece at the British Museum, and the Mask of Warka, it is possible there could be more. Further excavation and investigation needs to take place, especially in light of the evidence found during the 1920s. If cylindrical and seal devices can be found depicting kings in warfare during the Uruk period, arguments for the existence of actual kings could be heavily changed. The seal discovered by Woolley depicting A-bra-ge dates to 3200 B.C. and clearly shows a priest-king making an offering. The Uruk period ended in 3000 B.C., so it seems anomalous, and hardly feasible, that kings should only exist 200 years after this time.

REFERENCES CITED

• Bulliet, Richard W., Pamela Kyle Crossley, Daniel R. Headrick, Lyman L. Johnson, and Steven W. Hirsch. 2008 The Earth and Its Peoples: A Global History, Volume I. Houghton Mifflin Company, Boston.
• Collins, Paul. 1994 The Sumerian goddess Inanna (3400.2200 BC). Institute of Archaeology, UCL, Los Angeles.
• Hess, Richard S. (editor) and David Toshio Tsumura (editor).1994 I Studied Inscriptions From Before The Flood: Ancient Near Eastern, Literary, and Linguistic approaches to Genesis 1-11, Volume 4. Einsenbrauns, Inc. Winona Lake.
• Kramer, Samuel N. 1963 The Sumerians: their history, culture, and character. University of Chicago Press, Chicago.
• Moorey, P.R.S 1977 What do we know about the people buried in the Royal Cemetery? Penn Museum Documents and Publication. Accessed February 18, 2011.
• Pollock, Susan. 1999 Ancient Mesopotamia. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.
• Russell, Jan, J. (editor). 2008 They Lived to Tell the Tale: True Stories of Modern Adventure from the Adventurers Club. The Explorers Club. Lyon’s Press, Guilford.
• Spielvogel, Jackson J. 2009 Western Civilization, Volume 1: To 1715, Seventh Edition. Thomson Higher Education. Belmont.
• Ward, William, H. 1910 The Seal Cylinders of Western Asia. Carnegie Institute of Washington, Washington D.C.
• Woolley, C.L. 1934 Ur Excavations: The Royal Cemetery. A Report on the Predynastic and Sargonid Graves Excavated Between 1926 and 1931, Volume II. British Museum and The University of Pennyslyvania. Oxford University Press, London.
• Stele of Vultures picture.
• Mask of Warka picture. BBC
• Leonard Woolley
• Royal Tomb photo © Answers in Genesis
• Sumerian King List photo © Christina Mina

Monday Ground Up: Characteristics Distinguishing Priests, Prophets, Shamans, and Mediums

The symbolism and structure of ritual can be a confusing subject for anyone. As a culture, if we subscribe to a particular religion, it's often hard to put our ethnocentric views in our pocket and appreciate religion for what it is. What is religion you ask?

According to the Dictionary,

"Religion is a set of beliefs concerning the cause, nature, and purpose of the universe, esp. when considered as the creation of a superhuman agency or agencies, usually involving devotional and ritual observances, and often containing a moral code governing the conduct of human affairs."

Is this accurate? Would you agree with this statement?

My goal with these questions is to access how you view the world of religion and the religious specialists guiding you through your religious path. If you have one that is. My views are based upon a recent article by Victor Turner, noted for his contributions to the study of symbolism and the structure of rituals.

Turner refers to the most commonly used terns for religious specialists, although in the case of the word "shaman", anthropologists disagree about the use of this word in different contexts.

What Are The Distinguishing Characteristics of Priests, Prophets, Shamans, and Mediums

Priest

The priest’s calling is by sacred tradition, ordained by God, and highly structured. Using published literary texts to administer sacred rites and the word, once established by their own predecessors. The enterprise of a religion governed by a priest is permanent and influences the gods, where as a prophet is distinguished by a personal calling or a message from their god. A priest is an institutional messenger, whereas his words may not be, in fact, to inspire, rather to teach or manipulate symbolic objects in view of his congregation.

Prophet

A Prophet is concerned, not so much with appeasing the gods, but with the individual (person to person). The prophet’s calling is derived from revelation and personal “charisma”.  A prophet then delivers himself as a charismatic vessel (seeking to inspire), rather than a representative (priest) of the sacred tradition (a manipulator of symbolic objects). Weber explains prophets are often rational and use a “systematic and distinctively religious ethics based upon a constant and stable doctrine which purports to be a revelation”.

Shaman

 via Old-Picture

A shaman connects with the spiritual world on a face to face to basis. Shamans can alleviate traumas affecting the soul or perform curing rites for a family or individual depending on the illness. Shamanism is regarded as a type of spirit medium who can exert power or control over spirits. He can become possessed or controlled by a spirit and communicate the word of those spirits to the human world.

Medium

Shaman and Mediums are one in the same, although a spirit medium does not exert control or power over spirits, rather they are the “vessel of the transhuman identity”.  Communication is via person to person. A priest can communicate with transhuman entities (similar to a medium), although he uses objects and materials to convey this message.

What is the relationship between the scale of society & the type of religious specialist likely to be found?

Turner's methodology seeks to understand religious beliefs which seems to correspond with the nature of reality itself. Therefore the small scale community almost always represents a breaking in social norms and institutionalized religious rituals.

In this regard:

The shaman is often found in small scale multifunctional societies of food gathers (foragers), who are flexible and mobile. There’s a belief in a multitude of gods, deities, nature spirits, or ancestral shades, making a shaman a perfectly suited vessel for societies with low moral density and segmental organization. Whereas the shaman is found in small scale, loosely structured, societies, the prophet is found in diminishing large-scale societies, incapable of cross cultural relationships with small scale communities. This does, once again, represent a person who resides in a large scale society who breaks from the accepted institution to represent the small scale society. In that aspect, inspirational functionaries can reside in large scale societies.

In simple societies, there’s a tendency towards a specialization is herbal remedies, trance like states, communication with spirits, and bleeding. Therefore, many women and elders are responsible for their own religious capacity. This means, of course, we can see shamans and spirit mediums present in socially fragmented and unsophisticated societies. This can be seen in Michael Gelfand’s research with the Shona nganga, translated as “medicine man” or “witch doctor”, who is an herbalist, diviner, and medium. This exemplifies the sociocultural situation of similar practitioners in very many preliterate societies.

Priests can be found in complex and literate societies, which have the resources to support a non-working class. Not everyone has to devote themselves to getting or producing food. (Mod 2.3) In this particular setting, the individuals have the right to opt out of an affiliation with the organized religious sector. The structure is highly impersonal and includes several religious specialists, perfect example being the Catholic Church.

Consequently, this is not to say Priests cannot be found in medium scale societies who often recruit mediums, or rather they control the medium’s experience of possessions. This can be found in several West African cults. Of course you have to consider, if there are national gods, then there will be national priests, found in temples or shrines.

Final Thoughts

Religion can be viewed in different historical and social contexts, leading us to question the roles of religious specialists over the centuries. Do they have a defined status? Do they hold power, whether supernatural or personal? All these questions are interpretive, so what's your opinion?

Related Articles

In a recent Religion class, I was asked to take a quiz on the site Belief.net. The idea was to compare and contrast one of the top five and one of the bottom five religions assigned to me by the quiz. To be quite honest, I was a bit surprised at the results. I wasn’t expecting my religious beliefs to be packaged up in one perfect little box, however this site claims to do it with only 20 questions.

Belief.net Religion Quiz 

The Cro Magnon people left no written records about themselves, however they replaced the Neanderthals over 30,000 years ago. So what do we know about this prehistoric forerunner to the Homo sapiens?

The Cro Magnon Religion

In the late 14th century and after the death of Pope Gregory XI, the college of cardinals met to elect a new pope. The citizens of Rome feared the return to a French Papacy if a Frenchman were elected. Not only that, the cardinals would open themselves up to attacks if they didn’t choose an Italian.

Causes of the Great Schism

Resources

"Victor Turner." MNSU. MNSU, n.d. Web. 11 Sep 2010. .

Moro, Pamela, and James Myers. Magic, Witchcraft, and Religion. 8th ed. New York, NY: McGraw Hill, 2010. 142-148. Print.


Priest Picture
Prophet Picture
Medium Picture

Monday Ground Up: Mysterious Crypts..... What They Are, Why They Were Used, and Where Can They Be Found

You may be wondering, what exactly is a crypt? Why were crypts used instead of cemeteries? They have such a foreboding reputation, and in most cases, they may have, however there was reasoning behind this. You and I perceive them as creepy. A room breathing and speaking death. A dungeon in the pits of the abyss we’d rather avoid at night. For those that reside in the crypts, they mean something entirely different.

What is a Crypt?

According to Wikipedia, “In architecture, a crypt (from the Latin crypta and the Greek κρύπτη, kryptē; meaning concealed, private) is a stone chamber or vault beneath the floor of a church usually used as a chapel or burial vault possibly containing sarcophagi, coffins or relics.”

The keyword in this definition is possibly containing, meaning many of the crypts around the world have mummified bodies completely uncovered and in pieces. Hanging on walls. Framing an altar. In some cases, the bones were used for a bannister or staircase. Is this a new form of design? Not exactly.

I believe the bones, and you can tell me if you agree with this, represent the afterlife. They have been left behind, as they served their purpose.

Why Crypts Were Used as Opposed to Cemeteries?

In a practical sense, crypts were used much like cemeteries. To bury the dead. Associations with vampires over the years, however, have cause mixed opinions. This is, of course, because of mainstream media and the Hollywood horror genre in movies and television.

Crypts have been used for centuries for the following reasons:

• To combat the issue of cemetery crowding, crypts were used.
• To stop looters or vandals from stealing precious artifacts.
• To protect the dead from the harsh environment.
• To preserve a person of significant importance.
• To furnish an altar only accessible to certain people.
• To honor the dead.
• To evoke fear and the possibility of evil, crypts were used.

Personally, I’m a bit fearful of small spaces. Crypts represent the discomfort people feel in the presence of the dead and in small spaces. This proves to you and me, whether we believe spirits are present in these crypts, our human connection with this idea makes us uncomfortable. It’s this idea keeping people away from the crypts. The spirits. The dead. An atmosphere built on a person’s greatest fear.

Where Can Crypts Be Found?

Crypts can be found all over the world in places like:

• Poland
• Italy
• Germany
• France
• Switzerland
• Portugal
• The Netherlands
• England
• Turkey
• North Africa
• Romania

Are There Different Types of Crypts?

The answer to the question is yes. There are several types of crypts, those being:

• Catacombs- are ancient, human-made subterranean passageways for burial or protection. The word “catacomb” is most commonly associated with the Roman Empire.
• Tombs- a storehouse for the remains of the dead. It’s generally any structurally enclosed interment space or burial chamber, of varying sizes. The word is used in a broad sense to encompass a number of such types of places including: sarcophagi, vaults, rock cut tombs, crypts, monuments, sepulchres.
• Ossuary-a chest, building, well, or site made to serve as the final resting place of human skeletal remains. They are frequently used where burial space is scarce. A body is first buried in a temporary grave, then after some years the skeletal remains are removed and placed in an ossuary. The greatly reduced space taken up by an ossuary means it’s possible to store the remains of many more people in a single tomb than if the original coffins were left as is.
• Mausoleum-are above ground, free standing buildings, often concrete structures holding family members or one person. A tomb can be found inside a mausoleum.

Four Examples of Crypts Found In Portugal, France, Poland, and Italy

Catacombs of Paris

Image via Wikipedia

You may be familiar with the Catacombs in Paris, which is a series of tunnels, the remnants of France's stone mines, lined with over six million bodies from around the 12th century from the overcrowding of cemeteries during the rise of Christianity. The Catacombs is a form of ossuary, meaning it holds the skeletal remains of humans.

Capela Dos Ossos in Evora, Portugal

Source

The Capela Dos Ossos crypt in Evora, Portugal was constructed around the 16th century. The Capela Dos Ossos is a macabre chapel built by Franciscan monks whom believed life could change in a moment, and they urged others to share in this contemplation during prayer. Read this post about the Capela Dos Ossos

Capuchin Church

Source

The Capuchin Church is a Baroque inspired church built in Bryno in 1604. Capuchin is famed for its crypt, which contained more than 150 friars buried here between 1658 and 1787 during the reign of Emperor Joseph II. Today, there are 24 friars lying on the floor. The friars are fully clothed and their heads rest on bricks. Oddly, their facial expressions remain, as do the religious objects, which have been placed on their chests.

An inscription in the crypt reads:

“What we are, they once were; what they are, we will be.”

What do you suppose it means?

Wola Gułowska

Image via Wikipedia

The Wola Gułowska , built in 1782, is most famous for its miraculous image of the Virgin Mary, recognised in 1982 by the Archbishop Józef Glemp, and a copy of the image of Madonna. Under the church, a small brick lined crypt was built, which contains a coffin and two skulls. In October 1939, Polish soldiers fought the Nazi invaders in the Wola district of Gułowskiej, culminating in the Battle of Kock near the village. A shrine and Museum was erected in the village after the war to remember the fighting.

A Humorous Side To Crypts

Dr. Kara Cooney Egyptologist Lecture @ Philbrook Museum of Art

Is there a funny side to crypts you may be asking? Well, Dr. Kara Cooney certainly gives her own amusing take on the matter. Dr. Kara Cooney just recently gave a lecture at Tulsa's Philbrook Museum of Art. Cooney is  an expert when it comes to all of those ancient Egyptian crypts that fascinate us. Dr. Cooney has appeared on The Craig Ferguson Show and is on The Discovery Channel presently as well. Video By: Jerrys_Menu

Conclusion

Crypts represent many facets of life, as well as death. Over the centuries, they’ve been used to combat overcrowding of cemeteries, as well as repository units for royal families, monks, priests, and other significant persons.

For you and me, they appear to be small spaces encompassing a part of life we’d like to avoid. For those that reside in the crypts, they may represent completion of a life lived well. With honor. Without malice. A place we should respect.

In your opinion, what is the significance of a crypt as opposed to being buried in a cemetery? I believe they invoke a sense of spirit. You?

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Perhaps the most interesting part of St Peter and Paul’s church in Mělník is the crypt below the main altar.Accessible from outside through a small but ornate door, the crypt was originally intended to be a final resting place of the Bohemian princesses and queens who resided in Mělník at the time. Read This article on the Melnik Bone Chapel

Polyphonic Musical Composition at Notre Dame

In the central portion of Paris, France there lies an island in the middle of the river Seine. There you will find the huge Cathedral at Notre Dame which was built around 1200 AD. NotreDame is one of the most magnificently architectural locations in all of Europe. It's also a focal point for the first polyphonic music, created in honor of Notre Dame's completion.

In the 12th and 13th centuries, Notre Dame was the focal point of polyphonic music. Polyphony is a texture consisting of two or more independent melodic voices, as opposed to music with just one voice (monophony) or music with one dominant melodic voice accompanied by chords (homophony).

The earliest written sources of music were medieval manuscripts of the late 9th century that contain liturgical texts. Small symbols were used called “neumes that indicated the contour of the melodic lines.

The Cathedral of Notre Dame

 © source

In honor of the construction of this massive structure, two composers created the first polyphonic music in the history of Western music. Leoninus was the eldest son and originally started the collection of polyphonic music that was composed for Notre Dame, adding to the collection by extending the range and scope of the music.

Magnus Liber Organi

The polyphonic musical pieces were made into a compilation of medieval music called the Magnus Liber Organi (Latin for "Great Book of Organum"), known as organum.

Viderunt Omnes

The most famous of the musical compositions was the fourth part of Viderunt Omnes by Perotinus, based on the plainchant of the same name. This chant was meant to be played in the middle of Mass services on Christmas Day.

The most incredible aspect about this musical piece by Perotinus is that, it is built entirely on an ancient structure of musical composition. In addition, the voice parts of the composition were sang entirely by monks or priests.

The evolution of harmony began in the 10th century and it made its way all over the country and the entire world. Not only would your favorite harmonical songs be nonexistent if not for this invention, but our lives would be filled with monophonic music lacking instrumentation and including the voices of monks in unison.