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A Brief Discussion on Indus Valley Civilization Compared to Mesopotamia and Egypt

In response to a recent email I received from a student, I wanted to provide a brief discussion on the major differences between the Indus Valley Civilization Compared to Mesopotamia and Egypt. This is a general discussion and not meant to be a thorough paper on the topic.

Evidence suggests that Mesopotamia, Indus Valley, and Egyptian culture had somewhat of a cultural and economic impact on one another; however there are many observable differences and similarities in their artistic expression, social organization, and technologies.

Water, Irrigation, Flooding

Whereas rainfall was highly unpredictable in the Indus Valley, the Nile experienced a steady flow of ocean fed water, and while the Tigris and Euphrates could experience a lowering of water levels due to drought, the Nile’s flooding was a predictable occurrence, therefore soil remained highly lush and fertile. This of course supports the idea that irrigation was not as important in Egypt, yet vital in the Indus Valley, leading Indus Valley residents to create economic exchange networks to provide the many necessary resources that could not be obtained on the river floodplains.

Fragmentation

Fragmentation of the Indus culture can be attributed in part to changing river systems that disrupted the agricultural and economic system, whereas fragmentation of Egypt was largely because of politics and not related to the Nile or its impact on resource management.

Symbols and Writing

According to Kenoyer, “the urban expansion and increasing stratification of social classes in the Indus cities required the development of new forms of symbolic expression and new mechanisms for reinforcing social organization.”

We see this in seals and writing from the Indus Valley as well as cylinder seals in Mesopotamia. Cylinder seals from Uruk were linked to the invention of cuneiform writing on clay, therefore when this spread to other areas of the Near East, the use of cylinder seals spread too.

There were seals discovered in Egypt, albeit they were much smaller, in the deserts outside of Cairo. They are called scarab seals and they would have been attached to a document, possibly some form of weights and measures by a string.

Although many of the seals from Mesopotamia were pierced all the way through, like the scarab seals in Egypt, and worn around the neck as amulets, they tend to have the same message as seals found in the Indus Valley, which more often than not, were used as some sort of totem or art, hung instead of worn.

Monday Ground Up: What Do You Think Were The Best and Worst Aspects of Life In Complex Society?

I was posed this question(Best and Worst Aspects of Life In Complex Society) in a class called Archaeology of Complex Societies. It took me some time to even formulate an opinion as the amount of complex societies is vast, each one complicated in their own way. Each society and their info- structure, social organization, technology, architecture, and access to resources, is like a set of nested tables. One society was built on the next and others rearranged as societies came together because of warfare or environmental pressures.

 Best: Social Equality

Social equality in Mesopotamia complex society for women was virtually equal for both men and women. Women controlled their fertility and marriage was monogamous. If a divorce was sought by husbands and the wife had provided him sons, he forfeited considerable assets and the wife’s dowry was returned. This fact was seen in Knossos as well, as it was remarkably egalitarian between men and women. Women even had social, economic, and political roles as well. In Egypt, although women could not hold government offices, they could handle finances and the household.

In Peru, there was relatively little evidence to suggest social inequality or hierarchy, as people seem to have participated in collective labor without developing strong differences in access to resources.

Best: Infostructure, Trade and Technology

Nothing impresses me more with the planning and development of cities in complex society. Harappan society experienced urban planning, writing, a uniform system of weights and measures, the potter’s wheel, and a waste water system. Mesopotamia had the first writing to serve as record keeping, Cuneiform, Copper metallurgy, Gold, Smelted alloys (copper and tin), and they invented BEER. The Inka had knots for record keeping and taxation (Kepu) and the Maya, hieroglyphics.

As for trade, long-distance trade has been important in the evolution of many states, including those of Mesopotamia and Mesoamerica. Such exchange does develop eventually in all states, but it can follow rather than precede state formation. Mesopotamia and Mesoamerica controlled food production and distribution, which equals power. These societies regulated trade routes in order to suit to own needs, and sometimes, of their people.

In Habuba Kabira, inhabitants were purchasing their food from neighboring cities, thus, Habuba Kabira was mostly inhabited by Sumerians who were not interested in colonizing the territory, but rather using their river access to transport valuable resources south.

In Mesoamerica and Mesopotamia, with the advent of the hydraulic system, the authorities were beginning to control and maintain water as well as personal and group relations. Why is this good? More water=more food=more people. People are able to exploit new environments. In fact, Mesoamerica had “a wide range of resources available from region to region which encouraged exchange among different groups”.

Worst: Social Inequality

In the Dawenkou culture, grave goods painted a considerable picture of inequality as some were filled with jade, tools, ivory, animal bones, and others, were filled with nothing. In the Harappan urban zones, houses with single rooms “crammed together in tenement-like apartment buildings”. However, there were also no palaces in the five large cities that made up Harappan society, so it’s hard to determine the divide in society exactly.

At Teotihuacan, leaders utilized forced resettlement programs after immigrants from surrounding areas and Cuicuilco, populated the large city after the volcanic destruction. Most of the population (extended family) inhabited compounds and nuclear families often took up residence in “smaller sub-patios “in the larger apartment complexes.

Worst: War and Environmental Impact

Archaeological evidence of violence and warfare in Longshan villages turned up burned abodes and burials containing human sacrifices and several scalped individuals. Located between the arms of the Oaxaca Valley were “unoccupied “buffer” zones that archaeologists believe were border areas between competing, and possibly conflicting, political groups”.

At San Jose Mogote a temple was burned, which archaeologically, indicated an elite family was laying claim to the site and used violence to obtain it. At Burial 2 at Teotihuacan, the presence of predators leads many to believe that this offering refers to prowess in warfare. The human sacrifice had hands tied behind their back and was accompanied by a caged puma and wolf. By C.E. 500, temples at Teotihuacan had been burned and looted, possibly the result of a “violent uprising”.

Final Thought

What is evident is that the peoples of complex societies destroyed the environment to support economy via deforestation, soil exhausting, and erosion. We see this in Mesoamerica, China, Olmec, and Cahokia. Consequently, at the site of Catal Huyuk in Turkey, mounds, or “Tells”, rise high above the landscape, and what lies beneath, is thousands of years of garbage and human waste, polluting the earth. Of course, archaeologists view this in another context, calling it stuff or artifacts.

Regardless of impact on the environment, the only way we can examine the past is by looking at people’s garbage, which is representative of cultures across space and through time.

What Do You Think Were The Best and Worst Aspects of Life In Complex Society?

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South American Vs Old World Complex Societies: Similarities and Differences

The civilizations of the Old World were in fact derivatives of the first ancient cultures, even dominating their ancient counterparts in Egypt, Mesopotamia, and China. They did so by utilizing new forms of agriculture and technology, improving upon the methods previously noted. The South American societies paralleled the Old World ancient societies in that they exhibited advanced architecture, powerful armies, social hierarchies, and intensive farming systems.

Read more: South American Vs Old World Complex Societies: Similarities and Differences

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Read more: Social Complexity of the Ancients: A Brief Overview

South American Vs Old World Complex Societies: Similarities and Differences

The civilizations of the Old World were in fact derivatives of the first ancient cultures, even dominating their ancient counterparts in Egypt, Mesopotamia, and China. They did so by utilizing new forms of agriculture and technology, improving upon the methods previously noted. The South American societies paralleled the Old World ancient societies in that they exhibited advanced architecture, powerful armies, social hierarchies, and intensive farming systems.

Agriculture

In Mesopotamia, China, and Egypt, the citizens were “inextricably tied to the irrigation system fed by the great river through canal systems, controlled by the government” (Wenke and Olszewski 2007). This was not the case in South America, as citizens of the civilization worked as a collective, to provide the community with ample resources.

Relatively simple agricultural villages in South America grew mostly maize, beans, squash, and peppers and the abundance of the Pacific Ocean didn’t require the reliance on one staple crop. Overall the impact on the land was relatively low as opposed to their Old World counterparts, who utilized hoofed animals for intensive agriculture. Domesticates in Peru, or rather the role of these animals (llamas and guinea pigs) is unclear.

Sites like Tucume thrived, raising crops and animals and formulating a complete infrastructure including waterways and manmade watercourses, like the advanced systems we observed in Mesopotamia. The advancement of irrigation in this society located in Peru is fascinating. Why? The extreme environment and dry arid lands required physical and cultural adaptations.

South Americans “partially solved” a long standing Old World agricultural problem regarding tubers, developing a method of freeze drying potatoes for storage. In Old World Africa, the use of tubers was limited, as they were never brought under cultivation. Furthermore, tubers were also under cultivation in ancient China, India, the Near East and the Mediterranean Basin.

In sum: Old World societies relied on one staple crop, whereas South American complex societies saw crops as a supplement, utilizing maize, beans, potatoes, quinoa, fish from the nearby Pacific, and squash, to sustain the populations.

Class and Social Hierarchy 

Culturally, Old World societies were a bit different than South America. There was social inequality as sited by the hierarchical organization of class systems. State religions provided, as Wenke and Olszewski (2007) noted, the “context of life”. We saw temples in Mesopotamia which clearly indicated some sort of social hierarchy. The Shang society was headed by a king, who ruled through hierarchically arranged nobility (p 446). Consequently, the Erhlit’ou culture, as evidenced archaeologically, consisted of large abodes, middle sized lodging, and small villages, suggesting an administrative hierarchy.

There was relatively little evidence to suggest social inequality or hierarchy in Peru, as “people seem to have participated in collective labor without developing strong differences in access to resources. Michael Moseley suggested that these Peruvian societies living in villages along the water exhibited “simple social stratification” on the basis of fishing.

In the case of Chan Chan, however, there was clear evidence of a class system much like the districts are separated today. Social classes were sectioned off in nine "citadels" where they lived, worked, and carried on with their daily lives. Evidence at Chan Chan’s reflects a strict political and social strategy, marked by the city's division. The Inka were organized into a stratified class society under a monarch.

In sum: The beginnings of South American complex societies may have not exhibited social inequality, however as advanced architecture was created, farming techniques grew more dependent on labor and class divisions became apparent. This movement towards a more hierarchical class based system was seen in the Old World as well. As technology and agriculture became more advanced so did the need for a political entities and polities to control the new system.

Trade

Old World trade typically happened in the lowlands by the river valleys. This was seen in Mesopotamia, Indus Valley, and Huanghe. If we consider Peru, however, there were populations living in both the highlands and lowlands. Two separate environmental zones were utilizing trade, and not always via waterways. In fact, there is no evidence of boats being used along the Andean coast, so we can assume in fact that seafaring trade was absent.

Technology

Unlike the Old World, the Inka were the only Pre-Columbian civilization to lack or develop a written language. Furthermore, the Inkas and the New World civilizations developed or utilized the inventions of the Old World including wheeled vehicles, making farming and trade much for efficient and thus allowing the Old World civilizations to have overwhelming power.

The Egyptians, although many are unaware, were excellent seafarers, building boats for exchange with other societies via waterways. On the other hand, no boats have ever been found at any sites along the Andean coast, therefore we can assume trade was occurring between highland and lowland societies on foot.

Economics

In Old World Egypt, the resources were similar along the Nile Valley and Delta, however in Andean South America, different natural resources, ocean and farm, gave way to an economic advantage when both resources were utilized.

Final Thought

Although the civilizations of the Old World and South America were quite varied, there was a fundamental similarity between the two. The evolution of the “social institution” gave way to exploitation of peoples, even using the excuse that it was the civic or religious duty of the citizens to conform to this new structure.

Resources

• Wenke and Olszewski: Patterns of Prehistory 2007

Social Complexity of the Ancients: A Brief Overview

The concept of isolation is among one of the most significant ideas for social complexity, in that all complex societies were never “truly isolated from each other” . If this was the case, all complex societies would or could have, adopted a similar social organization, with the exception of the people living in Shandong Province as the Dawenkou culture, mentioned as having a limited or different access to resources, therefore aiding to a slight variation in organization.

What some of these societies do have in common, evidently, is there location, approximate in distance to rivers or water resources. However, Huanghe River’s annual flooding aided in rice production, yet the peoples didn’t depend on this resource, since grain millet (tolerant of dry climates) was grown in the same area as well. In actuality, reliance of some kind on agricultural subsistence, whether millet, pigs, rice, corn, wheat, wild plants and animals, chickens, and so on, were all present.

Social Hierarchy

As evidenced in Mesopotamia, the temples which held the gods, and ziggurats, which on many occasions, state officials called home, were clearly depictive of a social hierarchy.

Erhlit’ou
 
The same can be said for the Erhlit’ou culture, as archaeological evidence consisting of large abodes, middle sized lodging, and small villages, suggesting an administrative hierarchy. Albeit, there’s no written record to suggest this was the actual organization of the site.

Angang

 

Angang exhibited another settlement pattern; however, extensive looting has destroyed much of the evidence. What is evident is that there was a central palace, and several specialty workshops for prized items such as jade, bone, and bronze. If there were craftsmen who made these items then there had to be a central area for them to be accommodated. Although, the manufacture of these particular items was watched closely, so it is possible the individuals who made them resided within the walls of the palace.

Crete

 

The settlement patterns in Crete were a bit more perplexing considering the peoples were living in small villages without clear evidence for political authority extending beyond the village scale.

At the Palace at Knossos, there’s a series of rooms holding storage jars and documents, as well as a room for rituals by gods and goddesses. A throne room is present at Knossos, however there’s no clear evidence of the type of political unit once present. Furthermore, even the villas situated on the outskirts of Knossos have been rumored to be part of agricultural units, but this still does not indicate a single ruler of the area. The Goddess figurine from Knossos is depicted in artwork elsewhere in Crete and at Knossos and probably represents an important early divinity, similar to the Sumerian relation of king and gods.

Uruk


Historians believe priests and priestesses of several early city-states played an essential role in ruling in Uruk. Sumerians believed kings derived their power from the gods, and in so doing, were agents of the gods. Therefore, ruling power was primarily in the hands of kings.

Shang



Wenke and Olszewski (2007) mentioned that archaeological evident and written documents after the Shang period indicate that Shang society was headed by a king, who ruled through hierarchically arranged nobility (p 446). This is further explained by the relationship between the king and Di (god), mirrored by relationships between the king and his living servants and vassals: as the king served Di, so living people served the king.

Burials

The Chinese shared the custom of burials with Mesopotamia, as seen at the Royal Tombs of Ur. Not only were chariots and rice buried with the dead, but ruler’s wives, servants, guards, and other staffs were present as well, to aid him in the afterlife. Oddly, this custom wasn’t widely adhered to in Egypt, as we tend to see more material items: pottery, gold, necklaces, clothing, etc., in the tombs of Pharaohs.

Burials in eastern Crete contained valuable times like gold diadems and other forms of personal adornment. Consequently, the M10 Tomb at Dawenkou exhibited vessels and pig bones from feasting during funerary activities, although the scraps from swine don’t seem like an offering, rather an individual’s attempt to climb the social ladder while erasing someone’s past. Throwing out the garbage per se. Of course, this is not what it seems.

Final Thought

China's political authority consisted of small polities which didn’t span the vast areas like its counterparts in Mesopotamia. Like Egypt, there was evident inequality and large river valleys for trading and irrigation. However, in the case of both Egypt and China, eventually “a geographically large political unit was created. Consequently, social organization in Minoan Crete is poorly understood and within reason. There’s insufficient evidence. Like China, Egypt, and Mesopotamia, there was social inequality and some type of political authority. There were no city-states in Minoan Crete, but rather small polities like China. Authority was rumored to be in the hands of elite families and divinities, rather than one single ruler.

Sources

Bronze Artifact (Bronze two-sided mask, Late Shang Period (c. 1200-1050 B.C.)
Jiangxi Provincial Museum, Nanchang)

Classifying Complex Societies: What Challenges Do Archaeologists Face?

Archaeology of Complex Societies

There might be 101 challenges facing archaeologists when studying complex societies and I've only just begun in one of my classes focusing on the archaeology of complex societies. While reading through the material, I found several aspects, including the texts which were so diverse and extensive, and the assortment of dating techniques, which in one case, I had never heard of.

Like many of you it's a new experience for me, but I'm glad I get to share my path with all of you. If you have anything to add to the discussion, please free to leave a comment below.

Deciphering ancient texts

Ancient texts are quite challenging to decipher considering they may not use the alphabetic system such as our own. If the system is alphabetical, how do you know what sounds the symbols are meant to represent?

Furthermore, the language may be dead and no scholar has the necessary tools to decipher it. Depending on the symbols or logos, an epigrapher may be required to decipher what it is an archaeologist has found. Tracking down the epigrapher to take on task can be a daunting experience considering there are so few experts versed in the discipline.

We must remember, however, texts and scripts found in certain sites are not infallible. Why? Most of them were written by elites. Some with political propaganda. Even events such as war were misrepresented. Those having access to persons with the abilities to document these events were usually the victors, and often times, the events were embellished.

Maya Hieroglyphs are more than extensive when a novice, such as myself, starts to break them down. Deciphering the hieroglyphs takes a scholar versed in mathematics, language, and archaeology, and even if the inscription reflects an event accurately portrayed the same way at another site, doesn’t make the historical accuracy or the artifact irrefutable.

Accurately portraying an age of a complex society, based on information found, that is uniformly immense

Archaeologists using the Law of Superposition may be able to use the strata data to derive relative dates of artifacts found in certain layers, however imagine doing this for the entire site that may have included tens of thousands of people. Layers of strata can shift because of floods or be absent all together, but it’s the archaeologist’s job to find out why.

Why? Social organization is largely determined by the age of the society, therefore dating something so complex over such a large span of land can take years.

Example: Just because a level of strata was dated to a certain time, doesn’t mean the same level at a different site will yield the same results. As the module mentions, “relative age of artifacts, ecofactos, and features” can’t be determined without more information.

Furthermore, relative and indirect dates are least reliable, therefore archaeologists have to rely on direct dating from the objects or features found.

Cross Dating and Seriation provides another set of clues to determine dates of complex societies. However, when archaeologists are looking at such a vast social complex and one artifact is missing that turned up in another feature a few miles away, does it mean the sites are not connected? This is a challenge that must be met by using different processes and analysis. Cross dating may yield a comparison of like with like artifacts from different sites, however the frequency (Seriation) of the artifacts found brings about more clues as to the age of the site.

According to the AARCH, archaeomagnetic dating determines age of sites by testing iron deposits. It’s possible to determine the age of a site, albeit the site may be quite extensive, by melting iron to 400 degrees Celsius or higher, thus the iron will orient to magnetic north. There are some challenges as mentioned by the AARCH that state “Such materials retain a record of the direction and intensity of the Earth’s magnetic field from the time that the magnetisation was originally acquired. Direct observations of the present Earth’s magnetic field only go back for some 400 years (<200 years for its intensity)”. What happens when the site is relatively older than 400 years? Can archaeomagnetic dating still be a sufficient way to test age of sites? What do you think?